I've spent half a century (yikes) writing for radio and print—mostly print. I hope to be still tapping the keys as I take my last breath.

The Origin of the Top Hat

Now used mostly only by aristocrats, people in dressage competitions, and magicians to produce concealed rabbits, the top hat was once an essential adornment among influential people and those who thought themselves important.

As with many fashion items, the day the top hat first saw the light of day is difficult to pin down. One origin is based on a story of doubtful authenticity that involved a haberdasher named John Hetherington stepping out onto the streets of London wearing a topper.

The narrative is attributed to both The Times and St. James's Gazette and has Hetherington surrounded by a crowd in awe of the "tall structure having a shining lustre, and calculated to frighten timid people" (The Times, allegedly). The story continues that, after a riot, charges were laid against Hetherington for breach of the peace.

It's more likely the top hat evolved from the sugarloaf, or capotain, hat that was popular headgear for women and men in the late 16th to mid-17th centuries. And, it's also likely that the bragging rights for inventing the chapeau in question was a man named George Dunnage, who turned one out of his hatter's shop in 1793.

By the early 19th century, the top hat had become the hat of choice for society gentlemen. It carried the stamp of approval from none other than George "Beau" Brummel, the fashion dandy and arbiter of good taste; if Beau Brummel wore a top hat, everybody had to wear it. The top hat became ubiquitous throughout the western world.

The Making of a Top Hat

The beavers were tasked with donating their lives and fur, no doubt unwillingly, to manufacture high hats. The animal's pelt was felted in a process that was extremely hazardous to the hatters doing it.

The fur was separated from the skin, matted together, and subjected to a process called "carroting." The fur was pressed and shrunk using steam and mercuric nitrate. The felt was then shaped into the desired conical form and stiffened with glue.

The process gave off mercury vapour that was breathed in by the hatters, causing mercury poisoning.

Medicinenet.com tells us mercury poisoning can cause a host of unpleasant things to happen, such as "Tremors, emotional changes, insomnia, weakness, and muscle atrophy . . ."

Another noticeable symptom is a decline in cognitive function, giving rise to the phrase "mad as a hatter."

Silk Top Hats

During the 1830s, a huge sigh of relief passed in the beaver community as the silk top hat hit the market. The new hats were made on a frame of cheesecloth, flannel, and linen made rigid by shellac. Then, they were covered by black silk.

Brims got wider, and then they were made narrower; some hats became tapered while others had a lower crown. Then, they got taller, reaching 12 inches or more. This created an entirely new occupation, the theatre hatter-checker, so gentlemen could leave their headgear and not obstruct the view of audience members.

But, the Frenchman Antoine Gibus ruined that line of work by inventing the spring-loaded opera hat that squashed down to an inch or so in height.

Today, top hats are essentially back to being made of felt, with the grey version becoming more popular for slightly less formal occasions. Woe betide the man who turns up at a very formal event in a grey topper; such a bounder might well be asked to resign from his club.

The Decline of the Top Hat

By the start of the 20th century, the topper began to be pushed aside by the bowler hat, fedora, and boater. As fashion lecturer, Alice Payne notes in The Conversation, “The top hat became associated with Victorian stuffiness and formality, and was pulled out only for strictly formal occasions: weddings, the opera, garden parties, Ascot.”

Top hats are also required headgear on February 2 every year when Shubenacadie Sam, Wiarton Willie, Punxsutawney Phil, and all the other weather-forecasting groundhogs are dragged out of their burrows to predict the onset of spring.

The topper held on in a few bastions of privilege. In the rigidly formal world of diplomacy, top hats were required during official ceremonies. All the Japanese delegates to the signing of the surrender at the end of World War II incongruously wore top hats. John F. Kennedy was the last American President to wear a topper at his inauguration.

The Top Hat in Popular Culture

Wilkins Micawber is the optimistic but often bungling character in Charles Dickens' novel David Copperfield who is always confident that something will turn up. He is always portrayed wearing a top hat and was modeled by Dickens's father, who also found himself in debtor's prison.

The Micawber character inspired an early British comic strip about a lazy, top-hatted schemer named Ally Sloper.

Moving right along, Ally Sloper reappeared in 1915 in the persona of W.C. Fields's onstage performances as the boozy swindler looking to make a dishonest dollar. Fields, of course, wore a top hat, tails and carried a cane. In the 1930 film version of David Copperfield, who should play Mr. Micawber? W.C. Fields, of course.

Satirists have loved the top hat as a symbol of wealth and privilege—think Monopoly's Rich Uncle Pennybags, Disney's Scrooge McDuck. Whenever there is a need for an image to depict capitalism, the trusty top hat is called upon.

Many entertainers have used the top hat as a prop, from Marlene Dietrich's 1930 movie Morocco to Slash, the one-time lead guitarist with Guns N' Roses. And, perhaps, one of the last times a topper was used without irony was in the eponymous movie Top Hat.

Bonus Factoids

• According to Quirky Science, urine was frequently used in making felt because it is nitrogen-rich. Hat makers sometimes used their own urine if the pee donor was being treated for syphilis. The standard therapy for that disease in the 19th century was to dose the patient with mercurous chloride some of which would make it way into the urine and aid in the felting process.
• Reacting to change with bewildering speed, Britain's House of Commons ceased the daily use of top hats. That was in 1998.

Sources

• “Did the Mad Hatter Have Mercury Poisoning?” H.A. Waldron, British Medical Journal, December 24, 1961.
• “Mercury Poisoning Definition and Facts.” John H. Cunha, medicinenet.com, December 10, 2019.
• “The Story of … the Top Hat, Alice Payne, The Conversation, May 7, 2014.
• “The Top Hat: Its History and Popularity.” Geri Walton, April 10, 2014.
• “Top Hat: An Intriguing History of the Topper.” The Field, June 6, 2017.
• “Mad Hatters, Felt, and Mercury.” quirkyscience.com, June 11, 2012.

This content is accurate and true to the best of the author’s knowledge and is not meant to substitute for formal and individualized advice from a qualified professional.

© 2021 Rupert Taylor

Comments

Rupert Taylor (author) from Waterloo, Ontario, Canada on October 12, 2021:

Yes indeed, silly hats

However, I did once wear one (rented) as I was an usher at a friends rather posh wedding.

Miebakagh Fiberesima from Port Harcourt, Rivers State, NIGERIA. on October 12, 2021:

"silly looking hat"? I ginggle. It seems you would not like me dressed in one.

MariaMontgomery from Coastal Alabama, USA on October 12, 2021:

Thanks for a well-written and informative article. We don't think of top hats very often these days, but it was fun looking back on their history. I enjoyed reading it.

Shauna L Bowling from Central Florida on October 12, 2021:

Now I know where the term, "mad as a hatter" comes from. Pretty interesting history of this silly looking hat, Rupert!

Joanne Hayle from Wiltshire, U.K. on October 01, 2021:

Thanks for the information...enjoyed reading this:-)

Miebakagh Fiberesima from Port Harcourt, Rivers State, NIGERIA. on September 29, 2021:

Rupert, the read is a delightful. The hat looks beautiful and comical on the head. The men who wears them seems to be jovial always. Thanks for sharing.

Dolores's interest in fashion history dates from her teenage years when vintage apparel was widely available in thrift stores.

Bonnet History

During the 19th century, women of Western Europe and North America always wore head coverings outdoors or in public. Women kept their hair covered due to modesty, tradition, religious beliefs, personal decoration, and protection from the elements. Bonnets were the predominant headgear for women for most of the century. In a time before sunblock or sun glasses, a bonnet's brim protected the face and neck from sunburn and protected eyes from the harsh glare of the sun.

A bonnet covers the crown of the head, features a small or large brim, and ties under the chin. Some 19th century bonnets featured a flap of fabric at the back of the neck. Bonnets were often lined and decorated under the brim as shown in the portrait at the top of this page.

A hat is worn perched on top of the head. Hats of the 1800s were kept in place with hat pins which pierced the hat and anchored the hat to the hair. Hat styles changed as hair styles changed to accommodate curls, chignons, or extensions.

Caps cover the crown of the head. In past centuries, a cap called a coif was worn indoors and outdoors topped with a hat. Day or morning caps of the 1800s were similar to a coif and worn indoors by older women. They could be very plain made of white linen or muslin or decorative with the addition of lace, eyelet, ribbons or ruffles.

Mobcaps, more widely worn in the past, continued to be worn by some working women and domestic servants. Mobcaps were easily handmade out of a round piece of cloth featuring a full crown and gathered by a band into ruffles. The caps were usually white cotton or linen and sometimes edged in lace or eyelet.

The Business of Hats

Hats were handmade by milliners. Hat making was a respectable, creative, and skilled occupation in a time when jobs for women were generally limited to factory or domestic work. Milliners created hats for the elite as well as the middle class. Rose Bertin (1744 - 1813) was the first internationally known milliner who worked out of Le Grande Moghul in Paris, making hats for the nobility and upper class. Paris remained the arbiter of fashion. Wealthy women and milliners traveled to Paris to learn about the latest styles and decorative elements.

Royalty and the nobility had influenced fashions of the past. In the 19th century, a proliferation of women's magazine began to gain influence including Godey's Lady's Book (830 - 1898), Townsend's Monthly Magazine (1823 - 1888), and La Follet (1829 - 1892).

Rural women often made their own hats and bonnets using scraps from larger projects.

The Industrial Revolution increased production and lowered the cost of hats, making attractive head gear more available to lower middle class and working class women. As production increased, ready-made hat could be stored and sold to wholesalers. In the latter part of the century, department stores in large and small cities began to feature millinery departments

Early 1800s

At the beginning of the century, women's fashions reflected simple, classic styles as well as an interest in a romanticized pastoral life. Rustic bonnets came in many forms and could be plain or decorated with artificial flowers. Warm weather bonnets were made of straw and featured wide brims.

Popular styles included:

• Capote bonnets had close fitted, gathered crowns with stiff brims. The brims grew to later become Poke bonnets.
• The Poke bonnet featured a small crown and large, forward brim that protected the face from sun and rain. Worn in urban and rural areas, the Poke bonnet was The Hat of the American West.
• The Calash was formed over collapsible whalebone or cane hoops and had been popular in the 18th century.
• The "Gypsy" style featured a low crown with a moderately wide brim. Ribbons were fastened over the outside of the bonnet and tied under the chin.

Hats of the Romantic Era: 1820-1850

The Romantic Period emphasized sentimentality and emotion. The fashion elite's goal was to appear pale and lethargic with garments that hampered movement. Bonnets remained the most popular headgear for urban and rural women. Enslaved women of the American South wore turban-like head wraps as well as bonnets and mobcaps. Mature women continued to wear day caps indoors.

Hats featuring large brims and high, rounded crowns were decorated with lace and large feathers. From 1835-1845 birds - of - paradise blooms were in great demand.

Bonnets grew bavolets, flaps, or ruffles that hung over the back of the neck. Fashionable women wore bonnets with attached veils which could be thrown back over the crown of the head or hung forward over the front brim.

In the 1840s, a central dip appeared in the front center of the bonnet brim, creating a heart-shaped frame for the face. Ruffles, lace, or other trim were added to the underside of the front brim.

Drawn bonnets were built over wire or cane. Small channels were sewn into the silk, and the fabric was drawn over the cane. Similar to the calash bonnet of earlier years, the newer version was smaller and rounder than the tall oval bonnet of the 18th century.

Women who engaged in equestrian sports wore men's style top hats for the rest of the century. A loose veil was attached. Women wore large, round straw hats with flat, low crowns and down-turned brims for the beach, garden, or country.

Hats of the Crinoline Period: 1850-1869

The Crinoline Period refers to when women's skirts grew quite huge, first with crinolines then with added hoops. While Paris remained the fashion leader, Queen Victoria was highly influential and encouraged the growth of industrial production.

Older women continued to wear day caps, now with lappets which were long extensions or ribbons hanging from the front at the sides. The bonnet still ruled. Bonnet crowns were lower and sloped toward the back with wide front brims. Lappets hung from the front of bonnets from the 1850s to the early 1860s.

Beaded hair nets called snoods were popular at this time. A loose net-like weave hung from a headband to envelop the back roll of hair.

In the 1860s, small hats perched forward. Sailor hats featured round crowns with narrow brims. During this time, women also wore bonnets tilted back with the front part of the crown built high with decorative feathers, ornamental grass, and artificial fruit or flowers. Bavolets often hung from the back.

Late Victorian Hats

The 1870s and 1800s reflected a materialistic culture that emphasized consumer consumption. Women's garments and hats reflected the over-the-top sentiment with huge bustles at the rear of dresses and lavish ornamentation. Conversely, the Aesthetic Movement and Dress Reform Movements, as well as a new interest in sports, led to a simplification of styles at the end of the century.

Hats and bonnets were worn tilted up or set forward to accommodate great piles of hair at the top and back of the head. When hairstyles simplified, hat and bonnet crowns rose.

• Brimless toques became popular.
• Garrison caps were small and jaunty, decorated with feathers.
• The Post Boy hat, set high on top of the head, featured a high crown and narrow brim.
• Boaters were the same as men's versions. Flat crowned with a medium brim and ribbon surrounding the base of the crown, boaters were made of straw.
• The Trilby was similar to a Fedora. Trilby's have a smaller brim, turned up at the back with less pronounced creasing. The style was worn by men and women, with women's styles featuring more embellishment.

In the 1880s, hats perched high with medium brims turned up on one side.

By the 1890s, day caps were no longer worn indoors. Hat sizes were small to medium, some without brims. Decorations and trim appeared higher on hats and included ribbons, lace, flowers, and feathers. Embellishments were fastened on one side of the hat and rose above the crown.

Late 1800s Feathers as Decoration and the Decimation of Wild Bird Populations

For much of the century to the early 1900s, women's hats were decorated with bird feathers and plumes. From 1875 - 1886 entire stuffed birds or wings adorned hats. The feather trade was so huge that wild bird populations were devastated by the slaughter. Birds were killed during the breeding season when plumage was most attractive, leaving nestlings to starve to death.

Conservatives spread misinformation claiming that feathers were gathered from the ground at rookeries. Others believed that wild birds were an inexhaustible resource.

Harriet Hemenway and her cousin Mina Hall encouraged women's groups to help end the slaughter of egrets, birds - of - paradise, flamingos, roseate spoonbills, kittiwakes, and great crested grebes. Along with ornithologist William Brewster, they created the Massachusetts Audubon Society in 1897 and launched a boycott that eventually led to the prohibition of wild bird feather trading in their state. In England, Emily Williamson of Manchester pushed to establish the Society for the Protection of Birds.

By 1918, the Migratory Bird Treaty ended the trade of many wild birds and prevented the extinction of the Snowy Egret, Sandhill Crane, and Wood Duck, and helped restore populations.

For Further Reading

Victorian Fashion by Jayne Shrimpton; Shire Library

Victorian Fashion : A Pictorial Archive 965 Illustrations by Carol Belanger Grafton; Dover Publications 1998

Survey of Historic Costume by Phillis G. Tortora and Keith Eubank' Fairchild Publications; 1999

"Victorian Hats," Victoriana Magazine

© 2021 Dolores Monet

Comments

Chitrangada Sharan from New Delhi, India on July 11, 2021:

Excellent and interesting information about the women’s hats and caps. I liked reading about the details provided by you, in your well researched article. How times have changed, especially with regard to womenswear.

Great article and great pictures.

Thank you for sharing.

Pamela Oglesby from Sunny Florida on July 11, 2021:

This is a very interesting article, Dolores. I liked the hats from the romantic era the best. I appreciate all of the information you provided.

Peggy Woods from Houston, Texas on July 11, 2021:

I love reading these fashion articles of yours. This one about hats and bonnets was equally informative. I am glad that they stopping killing beautiful birds merely to display their feathers on hats.

Dora Weithers from The Caribbean on July 11, 2021:

As always. I appreciate the interesting and informative facts on fashion so long ago. The hats and bonnets added elegance to the woman's appearance. Hooray to the milliners who created such exquisite styles.

Modeling is about exhibiting works of art created by designers. However, the models themselves have become brands and it is not unreasonable

Famous Indian Models

Modeling is all about exhibiting works of art created by designers. However, the models themselves have become brands, and it is not unreasonable to say that they are the backbone of the fashion community. This post takes a look at the top 8 Indian female models who will change the game in the fashion industry.

• Ujjwala Raut
• Nina Manuel
• Deepti Gujral
• Archana Kumar
• Noyonika Chatterjee
• Sheetal Mallar
• Nethra Raghuram

Ujjwala Raut

One of the few Indian models with no plans to change the silver screen. At one time, Rawat was full of Bollywood offers, but she turned them down for her modeling career and met the demands of becoming a young mother.
She began her career in 1996 when she won the Femina Fresh Luck of the Year, immersed in direct modeling. Now 40 years old, she is the most successful Indian model abroad. Hugo has done shows for everyone, from the boss to Gucci to Victoria's Secret.

Nina Manuel

Nina was voted one of the top 50 stylish people in 50 consecutive years by Elena Magazine (India). Maxim and FHM have also voted her as one of the 100 sexiest women in the world. Not only has she walked the ramp for big names in the Indian fashion industry, but she has also covered some of the country's biggest fashion magazines (Cosmopolitan, Maxim, FHM, Elle, etc.).

Nina Manuel has been at the forefront of the Indian fashion industry for over a decade. In addition to making a name for herself as a model, she also earned acclaim as a performer. She is currently expanding her horizons, integrating into the design, fashion, and events, and adapting to Mumbai and New York.

Deepti Gujral

Dipti Gujral is an Indian actress, VJ, and a famous model. She has also successfully hosted popular MTV shows. She began her journey with modeling and when she was featured in Kingfisher's famous calendar. Gained fame. She is considered one of the most popular models in India and has endorsed many famous brands through print media and television commercials. He made his debut as a VJ on the MTV show - Pulsar MTV Assistant Mania Underground. Her second show with MTV was MTV Splitsola, Season 3. He hosted a reality series with Nikhal Champa, who has also played small roles in films like Ishq Vishq and Me, Me and Me. Dipti Gujral was born in Calcutta and spent his childhood there.

Archana Kumar

Archana Kumar is from Bangalore. He is a former state-level basketball player and field hockey player. Archana Kumar started modeling in 2008 along with her education, with the full support of her parents. Archana had completed two years of modeling in Bangalore before moving to Mumbai in 2012. She attended Elite Luck of the Year 2011 in Shanghai and was selected in the top 10 models in the world. She has appeared in all major magazines, including Vogue India, Elle India, Harper's Bazaar, and Marie Claire.

Noyonika Chatterjee

Originally from Calcutta, Niwonika started her career at the tender age of 13. Initially, he did small projects as a hobby, but when he entered junior college, he began to take it seriously. Doubled as "India's Naomi Campbell", the shiny-skinned beauty of "5'11 broke the stereotypes and quickly became a ramp favorite. She was incredibly popular in the 1990s and has been modeling for the past two decades. She took a break from modeling after her marriage and the birth of her daughter.

Sheetal Mallar

Sheetal Mallar is an Indian fashion model from Mumbai. The 44-year-old model, who reached 5'10, started her career in 1994 at the age of 16. Her first shoot was for photographer Gautam Rajadhiksha. She was named Femina Luck of the Year and Elite Luck of the Year in the same year. Through Elliott, she moved to New York, Milan and Paris and worked there for two years.

Nethra Raghuraman

Nethra Rahuraman was born into a Tamil-speaking family. She began her career in 1997 and won the Femina Magazine of the Year competition. Shortly afterward, she turned to acting and won Best Female Newcomer at the 2000 Star Screen Awards. Since then, she has also done reality shows.

Nitra has been married to Singaporean businessman Konal Goha since 2011.

Dolores's interest in fashion history dates from her teenage years when vintage apparel was widely available in thrift stores.

Children's clothing of Europe and the United States in the 19th century was made at home, hand-sewn by mothers or seamstresses. All babies wore long gowns with hems reaching far beyond the feet until they began to crawl. The white cotton gowns were easy to bleach and launder. Simple white caps could be decorated with lace, ruffles, or embroidery.

Toddler girls and boys were dressed the same, with little boys wearing skirts or dresses until the age of 5–7. In old photographs and paintings, it can be close to impossible to tell the boys from the girls as boys often wore long curls. Despite their girly garments, boys were allowed rough tumble and play. In some old photographs, little boys can be spotted with short hair.

Breeching was the term used when boys switched from dresses to trousers or short trousers called knickerbockers.

While fashion plates featured children dressed like miniature adults, reality did not always follow suit. Clothing for special occasions or Sunday best featured more fashionable lines and tailoring and fancier fabrics than for regular day wear.

For most of the century, young girls wore loose dresses with a ruffled yoke top. The dresses could be worn loose or belted with a sash. Young girls usually wore pinafores, a full-body apron featuring ruffled edging to protect their clothing.

Lower class and poor children often wore adult's used clothing that had been cut down and remade to fit.

Childhood in the 1800s

The general overview of childhood differed greatly throughout Europe and the United States. The Romantic Period introduced the new concept of childhood innocence, a romantic ideal that conflicted with the reality of many lives. Nearly half the babies born during the 19th century died before the age of five. African American children of the American South were born enslaved. Poor and working-class children in Europe and the United States worked twelve-hour days in mines and textile mills. Corporal punishment was the norm for even well-to-do children and some girls were intentionally malnourished to postpone the onset of menarche.

Education was for the upper and middle classes. Boys learned academic skills as well as sportsmanship and leadership. Girls' education consisted of languages, music, needlework, and dance. It was not until 1900 that the United States mandated compulsory education for children until age eleven. By 1910, 72% of American children attended school regularly, half of them in one-room schoolhouses.

Early 1800s

Women's fashions in the early part of the century reflected an interest in Ancient Greece. Girls' high waisted (Empire style) dresses were based on adult styles but with shorter hemlines.

Pantalettes were worn under dresses and showed below the hemline. Made of linen or muslin, pantalettes consisted of two tubes of fabric joined at the waist. They could be decorated with lace, ruffles, or embroidery. Small boys also wore the empire dresses and pantalettes.

Girl's hair was worn in simple styles, worn long or slightly curled that resembled Ancient Greek styles.

Outdoor wear consisted of capes and bonnets. A pelisse was an open, robe-like coat trimmed at the collar and front edges with fur or velvet.

Little boys dressed like girls. By age four or five, boys wore trousers under skirts then graduated to skeleton suits—a loose, wide-collared shirt with ankle-length trousers buttoned to the bottom of the shirt. When boys reached eleven years of age, they dressed like little men.

Boys and girls wore slipper-type shoes or soft boots.

Romantic Period 1820–1850

During the Romantic Period, very young boys and girls still dressed the same. While the previous period enjoyed a fashion based on comfort, the century began to move toward the rigid restraint so iconic of the Victorian era (Queen Victoria ascended the throne in 1837). When tiny waists became popular for both men and women, fashion plates depicted children with unnaturally tiny waists.

Children's garments appeared in fashion magazines. Then, as now, the high fashion was depicted with some exaggeration. Children's styles mimicked adult fashion with all its heavy tailoring. When women's sleeves ballooned large, boys' and girls' sleeves followed suit.

Girls wore lace-trimmed pantalettes under their skirts. Little girls wore knee-length skirts. As they aged, hemlines lowered.

Boys continued to wear dresses until age five or six. The skeleton suit remained popular until the 1830s. Young boys wore tunic suits which consisted of a long jacket, fitted at the waist that fell into a skirt-like tunic that hung to the knee. Tunic suits included matching trousers.

Older boys wore Eaton suits featuring a short, single-breasted, wide-lapelled jacket that ended at the waist. Older boys also wore waistcoats (vests) and neckties.

Crinoline Period 1850–1869

At midcentury babies still wore long gowns and caps. Little boys wore knee-length skirts. After breeching, boys often wore sailor suits with blousy tops featuring wide, square collars. Short pants called knickerbockers (loose, short pants gathered and buttoned at the knee) were worn with the sailor style often called middy shirts. Boys wore knee-length trousers or knickerbockers until they were fourteen years old.

Older boys wore Eaton jackets and long trousers. Outdoors, in cold weather, boys wore men's style coats such as Ulster, Inverness, or Chesterfield styles. Knit garments appeared for bed wear.

Young girls wore wide skirts patterned after the huge, hoop skirts women wore mid-century. Girls did not wear hoops in their skirts. Four-year-old girls wore knee-length hemlines. The hems lengthened as a girl aged until late teens when hemlines reached two inches above the ankles.

Corsets were introduced at sometimes very young ages. Early corsets for young girls were not as tight as those worn by grown women. The idea of corsets for pre-teens and teens was controversial. At the time, corsets were viewed as healthy undergarments meant to perfect posture, create a neat figure, and make a girl appear graceful. Some mothers went so far as to force young girls to wear corsets to bed.

Young girls still wore pantalettes until the 1860s. Boys and girls wore slipper shoes or soft boots. Girls began to wear colored or striped stockings.

1870–1900

The Industrial Revolution brought new technologies to children's wear. Diapers were mass produced in the late 1880s. Making children's clothes at home was simplified by the sewing machine which became available for home use in the 1860s. The electric sewing machine was introduced in 1889. By the 1890s ready made clothing for children was available at department stores. Mail order catalogs made shopping easier for rural customers.

Children's garments shown in fashion magazines still mimicked adult styles. Fashion plates depicted young girls wearing bustles (pads that added volume to the rear of a skirt.)

The breeching age for boys fell to age three when they began to wear short trousers. In the 1870s the short trousers were close fitted and in the 1880s were like short men's trousers. Boys wore knickerbockers or short trousers until the early 1940s.

Girls still wore the loose, yoke topped dress with ruffles. Sailor-style middy blouses and tunic tops based on Russian peasant costume became popular in the 1890s. When women (in the 90s) wore huge, leg-o-mutton sleeves, girls' dresses followed suit.

Toward the end of the 19th-century children's garments became less tailored and more comfortable. Romantic notions of childhood inspired children's garments. The illustrations of Kate Greenaway (as seen at the top of the article) inspired Liberty's of London to produce girls' dresses based on the early 1800s designs. Little Lord Fauntleroy suits, based on an 1886 novel, influenced mothers to dress their young sons in velvet jackets worn with white, wide lapeled shirts.

© 2021 Dolores Monet

I've spent half a century (yikes) writing for radio and print—mostly print. I hope to be still tapping the keys as I take my last breath.

Beards are back. We’ve gone from designer stubble at the end of the 20th century to full beards in the 21st. Will we progress/regress (matter of opinion) to the exaggerated hirsute look of the 19th century?

Beards Signified Courage

About the middle of the 19th century, men in England began sporting extravagant facial hair. The change from the clean shaven look came about as a result of the Crimean War.

The ill-advised conflict that started in 1853, pitted Britain and its allies against Russia. It was fought, in large part, on the Crimean Peninsular, a place that experiences harshly cold winters.

For many years, the British Army had a ban on beards but, when the frosty nights arrived, the military displayed a previously undetected willingness to adapt to changing conditions. Beards were now encouraged as a way of offering a bit of insulation against frostbite.

After the usual catalogue of military blunders whose effects were born mostly by the grunt soldiers, the war ended in 1856. When the surviving soldiers returned home, they kept their beards and moustaches as badges of honour.

Then, other men who had never been near a battlefield started growing facial hair. Writer Lucinda Hawksley notes that “Within a few years, it was almost impossible to see a beard-free male face in Victorian Britain.”

Crisis of Masculinity

There’s another view of why beards became popular in the Victorian era, not entirely separate from the previous one. The idea developed that the British male had grown soft and flabby through idleness. This, of course, applied only to the small leisure class that did not have to endure sweat labour to feed their families.

So, the copious whiskers took on the aura of manliness. Advocates of the unshaven look leaned on a Renaissance theory that a beard was a sign of “a fire burning below” i.e. male potency.

A magazine call The Crayon noted in 1859 that age and a beard denoted gravitas: “When half a hundred winters have blown their snows and sleets upon it, how venerable does the patriarch look?”

There's another theory that the first stirrings of the movement for the empowerment of women were having an impact on gender roles. Men were feeling threatened. A lavish display of facial hair was a statement masculine power.

For those unfortunate men whose ability to sprout flamboyant whiskers was limited, help was available. Charlatans peddled useless creams and unguents with claims that abundant hair growth would result. More practical, but probably quite easy to spot, were fake beards and moustaches sometimes made from goat hair.

A London wig maker obtained a patent for a contraption “with fastenings made of a certain elastic compressed steel or springs, and also with other flat springs or wires made of steel, for the closer adhesion of the points and whiskers to the head and face.”

Beards and Health

Supporters of the fashion cast about for evidence that their idea was valid. The Scottish physician Dr. Mercer Adams offered his opinion that facial hair was the “badge of manly strength and beauty.” He added that “hair covering the jaws and throat is intended to afford warmth and protection to the delicate structures in the vicinity, especially the fauces (opening at the back of the mouth) and the larynx.”

The hairy growth was called “nature’s respirator” that stopped germs, dust, and noxious substances from getting into the lungs. A government committee charged with improving workplaces suggested that workers “who are exposed to the influence of dust, grit, chips, splinters &c,” should grow beards.

The Workman’s Times was a pro-labour newspaper. It carried a story about an anonymous “medical writer” who examined a clean-shaven face through a microscope. And, horrors, he “discovered that the chin resembled a piece of raw beef.”

There were even claims that beards cured toothache by keeping cold air from getting at that abscessed molar. They were also believed in some circles to aid eyesight because of the observed connection between pulling out beard hair and the consequent watering of the eyes. Clergymen and other public speakers were advised that beards protected the vocal chords.

Medical science still had a way to go.

Beard Popularity in America

The craze for whiskers crossed the Atlantic Ocean through the agency of European fashion magazines.

However, historian Sean Trainor contends American men adopted the beard as a way of avoiding “the painfulness of their morning toilet.” The straight razor could inflict fearsome damage to the face of the distracted or inexperienced shaver. The bloodletting could be dodged by simply letting the hair grow.

So, when hairiness was given the seal of approval by Europe’s fashion gurus, American men latched onto it with enthusiasm.

In 1856, Boston’s Daily Evening Transcript published a 21-part series of articles in praise of the beard. Sean Trainor notes that the newspaper “argued that the beard represented a rugged and robust ideal of manhood, proving white Americans’ dominion over ‘lesser’ men and ‘inferior’ races. The pseudonymous ‘Lynn Bard,’ for instance, claimed that men took up shaving ‘when they began to be effeminate, or when they became slaves.’ ”

Historian Sarah Gold McBride agrees. She has written that the bewhiskered look was a response to the growing movement for women’s rights. She says men grew beards “to codify a distinctly male appearance when other traditional markers of masculinity were no longer stable or certain.”

Decline of Beards

The popularity of ebullient facial hair continued until the end of the Victorian era. The invention of the disposable safety razor in the late 19th century banished the fearsome reputation of the straight razor, sometimes called with gallows humour the “cut throat razor.”

Another factor in the decline of beards was what prompted their popularity in the first place―war. Soldiers in the two world wars found that the gas masks they were issued didn’t seal well against a hairy face.

The clean-shaven look prevailed until the current fad reached what some observers called “peak beard” around 2013.

Bonus Factoids

• Major General Ambrose Burnside (below) was a Union Army leader during the Civil War. He developed a bushy moustache that joined up with his side whiskers. His name was twisted to call the style “sideburns.”

• John Thoreau was the brother of Henry David Thoreau. In January 1842, he was sharpening his straight razor when he cut his finger. This resulted in tetanus and death from lockjaw within a few days. He was 26 years old.
• The play Our American Cousin opened in London in 1861. In it, a character named Lord Dundreary had exuberant side whiskers that became known as “dundrearies.” It was this play that Abraham Lincoln was watching when he was assassinated.
• The British Medical Journal warned of the cost of shaving in 1861. The august publication calculated that the time spent shaving in America each year cost the economy 36 million working days.
• Hans Steiniger, the mayor of Braunau, Austria, possessed a very long beard that he kept wrapped around his waist. In 1567, a fire ravaged the town and the mayor, running to escape the flames, tripped on his unravelled beard and broke his neck.
• Somebody who studies or admires beards is called a pogonophile.

Sources

• “The Great Victorian Beard Craze.” Lucinda Hawksley, BBC, November 17, 2014.
• “Beards, Masculinity and History.” Dr. Alun Withey, Wordpress, December 23, 2015.
• “A Brief History of Beards.” Dr. Alun Withey, BBC History Extra, May 21, 2018.
• “Power Is on the Side of the Beard.” Sarah Gold McBride, U.S. History Scene, undated.
• “The Racially Fraught History of the American Beard.” Sean Trainor, The Atlantic, January 20, 2014.

This content is accurate and true to the best of the author’s knowledge and is not meant to substitute for formal and individualized advice from a qualified professional.

© 2021 Rupert Taylor

I've spent half a century (yikes) writing for radio and print—mostly print. I hope to be still tapping the keys as I take my last breath.

For British bankers and civil servants, the bowler hat was part of the working uniform, along with the pin-striped suit and tightly furled umbrella. But it was so much more than that. In America, where it’s called the derby, it was also called “the hat that won the West,” not the Stetson. In Bolivia, it’s women who wear bowler hats, known as bombin.

The Origin of the Bowler Hat

The Earl of Leicester had a problem. The gamekeepers who patrolled his estate to deter poachers wore top hats, and these kept getting knocked off and damaged. Could somebody come up with a solution?

Yes indeed, somebody could. The earl’s younger brother Edward Coke (pronounced cook) sought out the services of the hat-makers Lock & Co. of St. James Street, a very up-market address, in central London. The commission was passed on to William and Thomas Bowler, who designed a strong, low-domed, tight-fitting hat covered with felt.

Coke showed up at the Lock’s place of business in December 1849 to inspect the creation. It’s said that he put the bowler on the floor and stomped on it a couple of times. He pronounced the headgear suitable for gamekeepers and paid the company 12 shillings (that’s about £50 in today’s money).

As was the habit of Lock & Co., they named the hat after the first customer to order it. The coke was born; it only later took of the name of its actual designers.

From Working Class to Middle Class

At first, the bowler hat was commonly used by working-class men in Britain. However, early in the 20th century, the hat became popular among London’s gentlemen of finance and governance.

Armies of bowler-hatted men marched into the City of London each morning to go about their toils in counting houses, bureaucracies, and law chambers. The attire became the mark of the “City Gent.”

At the same time, it was lifted from the head of the working man, who replaced it with the cloth cap. The type of hat worn became a statement about Britain’s class system.

But, fashions change, the bowler hat came in for a bit of ridicule over snobbishness, and its popularity faded, replaced by a more casual look. However, those who follow such things say the bowler hat is making a bit of a comeback.

The American Derby Hat

When the coke/bowler crossed the Atlantic to settle on the heads of Americans it also acquired a new name―in the United States it’s called a derby. However, the name also owes its provenance to a British aristocrat.

Edward Stanley, the twelfth Earl of Derby set up a horse race in 1780. The race took his name and became known as a derby. When bowler hats arrived, stylish gentlemen wore them to watch the derby. Americans had their own Kentucky Derby and they took the name and attached it bowlers.

The derby became popular with cowboys and railroad workers. Author Lucius Beebe was moved to write that “the authentic hat of the Old West was the cast iron derby, the bowler of old Bond Street, and the ‘chapeau melon’ of French usage.” He added that “only a very small fraction of the population of the West, and that largely in Texas and concerned with ranching, wore a Stetson or other variety of shade hat.”

Famous outlaws in the rough-and-tumble days of the nineteenth century wore derbies; the list includes Billy the Kid, Butch Cassidy, and Black Bart. Hollywood movies notwithstanding, officers of the law such as Bat Masterton also wore derbies.

The Bolivian Bombin

In the 1920s, a large number of British workers were in Bolivia building railways. A hat maker shipped a consignment of bowlers out to the men, but they were either too small or the wrong colour (sources disagree).

Domingo Soligno, a wily entrepreneur, came to the rescue. He convinced Aymara and Quechua Indian women that the hats were all the rage among the fashionistas of Europe.

It worked and today the bombin (bowler in Spanish) is worn with pride or, more accurately, perched on the head of Indigenous Bolivian women.

If it’s placed on the top of the head, it signifies the woman is married; tilted to one side is an indication that she is single or widowed. According to a Bolivian joke, if the hat is put on the back of the head it says “I’m in a relationship, but it’s complicated.”

Bowlers in Popular Culture

The headgear became part of the iconic costume of comedic no-hopers such as Charlie Chaplin, Laurel and Hardy, Curly Howard of the Three Stooges, and Roscoe “Fatty” Arbuckle.

At the other end of the cinematic class system was the suave and sophisticated Patrick Macnee (John Steed of The Avengers), the cunning and self-effacing intelligence officer Alec Guinness (George Smiley in adaptations of John le Carré’s novels)

On the darker side, the teenage Droogs in Anthony Burgess’s dystopian novel A Clockwork Orange (adapted as a movie of the same name by Stanley Kubrick) wore bowlers as they went about the ultra-violent attacks on random people. Harold Sakata (Oddjob in Goldfinger) wore a bowler with a sharpened steel rim, which, when thrown like a Frisbee, became flying guillotine.

Women in movies took to wearing bowlers to fetching effect. Bette Davis, Marlene Dietrich, and Anita Ekberg turned the hat into a natty accessory. Lisa Minnelli in Cabaret made the chapeau look really good, as did Ann Reinking in All that Jazz.

There’s no better way to wrap this up than with another viewing Ms. Reinking’s brilliant execution of Bob Fosse’s choreography. Sadly, Ann Reinking died on December 12, 2020.

Bonus Factoids

• Thomas Edward Coke is the 8th Earl of Leicester and he currently manages the family estate at Holkham Hall in Norfolk. He gives a new bowler hat to his gamekeepers after they complete one year of service.
• The deadly bowler used by Oddjob in the movie Goldfinger was made by the hatters Lock & Co., who created the style in 1849. Oddjob's hat was sold at auction in 2006; it fetched a price of $36,000.

Sources

• “The Coke or Bowler.” Lock & Co., Hatters, undated.
• “Hat Trick: the History of the Iconic British Bowler.” Discover Britain, undated.
• “The Hat that Won the West.” Lucius Beebe, The Deseret News, October 26, 1957.
• “Derby.” Encyclopedia of Fashion, undated.

This content is accurate and true to the best of the author’s knowledge and is not meant to substitute for formal and individualized advice from a qualified professional.

© 2020 Rupert Taylor

Comments

Peggy Woods from Houston, Texas on December 16, 2020:

You have given us a good history lesson regarding a bowler hat, and how they have been worn through the years. Charlie Chaplin and others did their part to popularize that head adornment. I enjoyed learning about how it was used in social status situations, etc.

John Hansen from Gondwana Land on December 16, 2020:

No, I can't recall ever seeing one in Australia, but now I can't get the image of a bowler hat with corks out of my mind.

Rupert Taylor (author) from Waterloo, Ontario, Canada on December 16, 2020:

Growing up in England I don't recall ever seeing a bowler outside of London. I don't imagine they were big in Australia; tough to hang corks from the narrow and hard brim.

John Hansen from Gondwana Land on December 15, 2020:

This was a great read, Rupert.I loved learning the history of the bowler hat (derby) and will always associate it with the characters John Steed (Patrick McNee) Of the Avengers, and Bat Masterson (Gene Barry). I didn't know about the introduction to the Bolivian women. They were duped but embraced it.

Dolores's interest in fashion history dates from her teenage years when vintage apparel was widely available in thrift stores.

Women's clothing of the 17th century followed the Baroque style of the time. Highly ornamental Baroque fashion featured soft, free-flowing lines and a release from the stiff, structured garments of the Elizabethan Era. While French fashion, influenced by King Louis XIV, was highly elaborate, the styles of Protestant countries were more subdued.

As in the previous century, women wore many layers of clothing. Europe was going through a cool climate period known as the Mini Ice Age. While not exactly an ice age, though glaciers did advance, wearing many layers made sense.

Fabrics and style influences from Asia became more available due to an expansion of the shipping trade. While overland routes had previously enabled East/West trade, shipping greatly increased commerce with the import of Chinese silk and Indian cotton. The British East India Company, founded in 1600, took control of portions of India, granted the right by King Charles II to coin money and command troops in the region.

Consumer demand for imports, including inexpensive Indian cotton, became acknowledged as an important part of the economy. Fashion was recognized as a commercial entity, reported on in magazines. The French periodical Le Mercure Galant, a society magazine produced from 1672–1674 and in 1678 Donneau de Vise, offered articles on life at court, theater, political opinion, and fashion. Illustrations of fashionable garments by printmakers Jacques Callot and Abraham Bosse were accompanied by details on fabrics, shoes, and accessories as well as mentions of suppliers and merchants.

Fashion dolls passed around at court displayed new fabrics and styles for inspiration.

As in the previous century, the elite set fashion trends. Louis XIV dictated the types of garments, fabrics, and styles worn at court. He even regulated the length of trains on ladies' gowns with higher status women allowed to wear longer trains.

Historical information about clothing worn by the elite and upper-middle-class comes from fashion drawings, paintings, written records of laws, merchant's inventories, and household accounts. The written word is more reliable as paintings could feature out of date, or fanciful clothing. Few intact garments of the period are available today as fine clothing was taken apart and remade.

Early 1600s

While the architectural styles of the Elizabethan Era persisted early on, the farthingale (a wide, hooped skirt) disappeared by 1613. Women's clothing became more natural with soft, flowing lines. Necklines could be high or low and rounded.

The stomacher (a stiff V-shaped piece inserted at the front of the bodice) lengthened into a U shape. The stomacher could match or contrast with a bodice or gown changing its look and adding variety to a woman's wardrobe. Embroidered linen with silk thread featuring flowers and scrolling vines was a popular motif.

The sides of gowns and skirts were wide and full. Sleeves were capped with small wings at the shoulder. Early in the century, sleeves were tight but puffed in the 1620s and '30s. Virago sleeves were puffed and gathered with bands.

Ruffs, wide wired or starched collars grew in size in the Netherlands but became smaller in France.

The white linen chemise continued as an essential undergarment and continued for many years.

For a short time, early in the century, some young women took to wearing masculine attire, including doublets and wide-brimmed black hats.

1630–1660

Bodice and skirts were seamed together at the waist. The waistline rose, and gowns were worn open at the center front, showing off underskirts. The outer gown was worn over an underbodice, which was boned and stiffened like a corset.

The open gown showed off beautiful underskirts with the outer skirt sometimes worn hooked up over the arms. Even when the outer skirt (the modeste) was worn closed in front, an underskirt (the secret) was also worn.

Bodices featured extensions that fell below the waist. Low cut necklines were softened by linen kerchiefs or nearly transparent collars. The ruff collapsed into a wide, falling collar gathered at the neck, sloping towards the shoulder. Laced front bodices were covered by a deep, pointed stomacher.

Hair was parted at the ear from side to side and pulled back into a roll with the front arranged in tight or frizzed curls.

Coifs and small linen caps, were worn indoors and out, though some women went bareheaded. Women wore wide-brimmed cavalier style hats. The capotain was a hat worn over a coif that featured a high crown and narrow brim. By 1635, the brims narrowed, and hat bands were decorated with feathers. Hoods were worn outdoors along with capes.

Tiny patches applied to the face appeared in a variety of shapes, including stars, hearts, circles, and crescents in a style that persisted for eighty years.

1660–1680

The silhouette changed as bodices lengthened and narrowed in a style that slenderized the figure. Stomachers extended to a long V in the front. Necklines were low and wide, horizontal or oval. Falling collars fell out of fashion by the 1670s, although the kerchief was worn outdoors, covering the neck area to the shoulders.

Sleeves set low on the shoulder were puffed or ruffled, ending just below the elbow. Skirts were worn either open at the front or closed. Open overskirts draped back at the hip line. Gowns featured rows of ruffles down the front. Seam construction lines were decorated with lines of ribbon or braiding.

Women's fashion continued to become looser with an air of calculated disregard.

1680–1700

A new style emerged in clothing construction for women's garments. Rather than cutting the bodice and skirt separately, then sewing them together, gowns were now cut from shoulder to hem. The style called "mantua" was inspired by the clothing of the Middle East.

A mantua was fuller than the old style but could be belted for a neat fit. A loose mantua was a comfortable garment to wear at home. Pleated versions that featured pleats in front and back made for a dressier, more traditional look. As with skirts of earlier years, the front skirt area could be draped back. Underskirts featured decorative elements like embroidery, ruffles, and pleating. Heavy, layered overskirts were supported by whalebone, thin metal, or with basketwork.

Hairstyles were high on top of the head with long, curling locks at the sides and back. The fontage became a popular headdress. Wire supported layers of ruffles and lace on top of the head. Though small at first, the fontage grew in height, eventually featuring three to four tiers of lace in front with lace, ruffles, and bows falling down the back.

Necklines rose and squared with the decorative edges of the corset visible. Some necklines were perfectly horizontal. Women continued to wear stomachers that were tied or pinned to the front of the bodice. Embroidered stomachers changed the look of an outfit.

Fabrics of the 1600s

Linen and wool continued as wardrobe staples. Linen was worn by nearly everyone with finer weaves and brighter whites worn by the elite. The lower classes wore coarse woven linen in natural hues like beige or gray. Linen, being easy to clean, was worn close to the body and for summer.

Hemp was a tough, durable, coarsely woven fabric worn by the poorest people. As fabric was woven and made at home, hemp was easier to produce than labor-intensive linen.

Lower class people wore wool outer garments, including dresses, skirts, and cloaks. Wool has the unique quality of keeping the wearer warm even when it's wet.

Cotton became a popular new fabric choice. Imported Indian cotton was inexpensive and easy to clean. Muslin is a fine, lightweight cotton that is soft and durable.

Chintz was a hand-painted or printed cotton fabric. Today, we think of chintz with a glazed surface, but not all chintz was glazed in the 17th century. European merchants provided Indian manufacturers with European style patterns. Asian themed patterns were popular as well. Artichokes and pomegranates were popular design motifs. At first, chintz was used for bed linens, curtains, and tablecloths. By the late 1600s, it became widely used for garments. At the time, European printed fabrics were not color-fast, but chintz designs did not fade in the laundry.

Velvet came in a variety of styles and thicknesses. It could feature stamped designs or woven-in metallic thread. The finest velvet was patterned silk velvet.

Silk was very expensive and worn by the elite. Heavy satins were worn for formal occasions and often show up in portraiture. Pastels and bold colors were popular in solid colors.

The garments worn by the upper class were made of bright colors due to the expense of dyes. Portraits often show women wearing black, which was the most expensive dye, so reflected the status of the subject. The natural dyes of the common folks came in muted tones and faded with washing.

Clothing of Lower Class Women in the 17th Century

Lower class women wore styles similar to the elite but made of cheaper fabric with less complicated tailoring and decoration. Women of the lower classes made their own garments, wore hand-me-downs, or purchased used clothing. High-quality dresses, table cloths, or curtains could be deconstructed and made into new garments.

Domestic servants usually dressed well. They were offered their employers used garments and linens. The use of used chintz tablecloths and curtains for clothing was an early instance of a fashion trend moving up from the lower classes into the elite.

Working women wore ankle-length skirts for ease of movement and to keep their hemlines clean. Bodices were laced in front and usually worn without a stomacher.

Women wore aprons to protect their garments at home. Some of the aprons during that time could be quite pretty with ruffles and embroidery.

Women's Footwear of the 17th Century

Women wore pumps with somewhat pointed toes and chunky high heels. The heels grew higher and narrowed in the last third of the century. Made of embellished leather or brocade, shoes tied closed with a ribbon at the top.

Pantofiles were heelless slip-on shoes with cork soles usually worn at home.

A wooden platform could be attached to a shoe for outdoor walking in the filthy streets. They raised the foot up from the ground. Called chopines and covered with velvet and embellished with beads they became very tall and a topic of ridicule by some critics.

By 1640, high heels developed a slight curve at the back of the heel. Squared toes came into vogue. By the 1660s, heels grew higher and the shoe slimmer at the front. Between 1660 and '70 an obvious white line showed where the upper part of the shoe met the sole. By the 1690s, curved heels came back into style.

Accessories of the 17th Century

Accessories included gloves, handkerchiefs, purses, fans, fuffs, and muffs. Face masks were sometimes worn in bad weather to protect the skin.

Women wore necklaces, bracelets, earrings, and rings. Pomander balls were made of filigreed silver or gold and held balls of perfumed resins coated with cinnamon, cloves, and musk oil. They often hung like a pendant.

Nosegays, small bouquets of herbs and flowers were carried and held up to the nose to mask the stench of open sewers.

Short strings of pearls were popular for most of the century and can be seen in many portraits.

Muffs, worn in winter for warmth were convenient for tucking in money or handkerchiefs.

Women continued to wear a coif, a small linen cap. The fontage was a lace headdress based on a mantilla.

For Further Reading

The Cut of Women's Clothes 1600–1930 by Norah Waugh

Patterns and Fashion 1 : Englishwomen's Dresses and Their Construction 1660–1860 by Janet Arnold

A Visual History of Costume in the 17th Century by Valerie Cummings

Handbook of English Costume in the 17th Century by C. W. Cunningham and P. Cunningham

Clothing of Provincial England by Danae Tankard (ebook)

What People Wore When: A Complete Illustrated History of Costume From Ancient Times to the 19th Century for Every Level of Society by Melissa Leventon

© 2020 Dolores Monet

Comments

Dolores Monet (author) from East Coast, United States on October 02, 2020:

Hi Peggy - I love to look at the old art but we have to be careful when looking at clothing. Many artists choose to depict subject in clothing of the past.

Peggy Woods from Houston, Texas on September 25, 2020:

Your articles about fashion are filled with not only information about the period, but fantastic illustrations as well. Artists during each period were often paid to paint royalty and wealthy people. Because of it, we can easily look back at fashions through the ages when visiting museums. Your tidbits of information are always so interesting. Thanks for documenting the women's fashions of the 1600s.

Dolores Monet (author) from East Coast, United States on August 09, 2020:

Hi Maren - stomachers provided women a way to create variety in her wardrobe. Different stomachers could change the look of an outfit. One bodice or gown could be worn with a matching, contrasting, or highly embroidered stomacher for different looks. In the late 1600s, they fit in a manner that uplifted the bosom where earlier they flattened the chest. They were a fashionable accessory, not a means of achieving modesty. Thanks!

Maren Elizabeth Morgan from Pennsylvania on August 08, 2020:

Fascinating article. Did stomachers evolve to provide modesty for ladies? I ask because the Amish and Old Order Mennonites in my area wear a dress style with an extra rectangle of fabric over their chest and down to the waistline. It serves no practical purpose - just hides a woman's bosom.

Carson goes the extra mile when it comes to skincare. She's passionate about helping women discover a skincare routine that suits them best.

Where to Shop if You Love Anthropologie?

Can't get enough of Anthropologie's boho-chic style? I can't blame you! It's the first store I visit when I need a cute dress, and it's virtually a guarantee that I'll find something both whimsical and classic. Sure enough, I'm not the only one who's under Anthropologie's sartorial spell. Thousands of women across the globe love their vast collection of trendy and vintage clothes.

I've been a huge fan of Anthropologie for years, but I still shop at other stores that carry the same sense of elegance and style. If you're looking for stores like Anthropologie, then here's a list that should help you out. Be careful, though. You might find yourself filling your virtual cart with one pretty piece after another. Don't say I didn't warn you!

Stores Like Anthropologie

1. Urban Outfitters
2. Free People
3. Revolve
4. Madison Style
5. Mango
6. & Other Stories
7. ModCloth
8. Boden
9. Ted Baker
10. Nasty Gal

1. Urban Outfitters

It doesn't matter if you love shopping for new clothes or home décor. If you want to up your style, you'd want to shop at Urban Outfitters. It brands itself as a lifestyle retailer, offering a massive selection of products ranging from trendy womenswear and menswear to decorative pieces for embellishing your home or office. In case you didn't know Urban Outfitters is owned by the same parent company as Anthropologie. No wonder that both brands share a similar taste in fashion.

2. Free People

Free People also belongs to the URBN brand, so it shouldn't come as a surprise that many people consider it to be very similar to Anthropologie. In fact, you can say that Anthropologie is the child of Free People. Many people don't realize that this brand has been around since the 1970s. It emerged in popularity once again in 2001 when the company decided to realign their identity to their roots, catering to the more mature, sophisticated, and contemporary women. Whether you're looking for an everyday dress or a cute top for your next outdoor fun, you can't miss the always awesome Free People collection.

3. Revolve

Revolve has grown so much since launching in 2003. The company now has more than 1,000 team members, all working to serve millions of customers around the world. There's so much to love about Revolve. For one, their mobile app makes it easy to keep up with their latest products. They have also teamed up with more than 500 brands. At Revolve, you can find timeless women's and men's wear as well as beauty products you'd want to add to your essentials.

4. Madison

When it comes to shoes, one of the first names that come to mind is Madison. For nearly three decades, Madison has been regarded as a footwear authority. This is all thanks to their relentless efforts in blending the latest technological advances and traditional craftsmanship. The result is a timeless, elegant, and quality collection of shoes that any woman would fall for. But even if they're best known for shoes, they also offer fashionable clothes, bags, and accessories. And since they're a high-fashion brand, expect to pay a little more than what you typically do at Anthropologie.

5. Mango

Want to look stylish in the office? Mango has you covered. Since 1984, Mango has been helping women express their own style with classy clothes, ones that prove to stand the test of time. Their ensembles are simple yet sophisticated, perfect for the modern woman. The company designs 18,000 clothes and accessories every year. Just think about that for a second. And the best thing is that they keep their products affordable, so be sure to check them out if you love Anthropologie.

6. & Other Stories

Can I just say that I love the name of this brand? & Other Stories is aptly named because it carries on-trend designs from fashion meccas including Los Angeles, Paris, and Stockholm. You can certainly create your own story by choosing from the brand's full range of clothing, enabling you to explore different styles to express your own fashion sense. Prices are similar to Anthropologie as well.

7. ModCloth

ModCloth is a fashion brand that strives to empower women by making them feel more confident regardless of their skin, size or fashion sense. This indie brand has made waves since its breakout in 2002. Thousands of women started supporting ModCloth because in many ways, it revolutionized industry standards. It was a relatively small company, yet it echoed the need for size inclusion, discouraged the use of Photoshop, and championed female leadership. These things are now the norm, and ModCloth played its part to make fashion more accessible to all women.

8. Boden

Want to dress up your whole family? Head over to Boden, one of the most popular fashion brands in the UK. Johnnie Boden is the man behind it all. He started Boden from his kitchen table back in 1991, creating eight menswear pieces that were sold through mail-order. Today, the company caters to a worldwide audience, offering clothes for men, women, and even infants! Their clothes are timeless classics, yet they manage to keep up with the latest trends.

9. Ted Baker

Ted Baker is a well-known lifestyle brand in the UK. It was founded in Glasgow in 1987, starting out as a menswear brand. Since then, it has grown in one of the largest online fashion retailers in the country. Much of their success can be attributed to their keen focus on quality, impressive attention to detail, as well as their unique sense of humor. They carry the title, "No Ordinary Designer Label," and it's because every single piece resonates the personality of the man himself, Ted Baker. This brand is best known for its cute and feminine dresses.

10. Nasty Gal

If you want to dare yourself to try an edgier style, Nasty Gal should rank on top of your list. It's famous for creating trendy clothes that make you stand out in a crowd. But it's also a store similar to Anthropologie because they offer a sizeable collection of boho-chic items as well. And another reason to try shopping at Nasty Gal is that their prices are typically way lower than Anthropologie.

Excited to Go on Your Next Shopping Spree?

You won't run out of choices when it comes to the boho-chic style. While Anthropologie has mastered this particular style, it never hurts to expand your options and discover new shopping destinations.

Can you recommend more stores similar to Anthropologie? Feel free to share them below.

Carson goes the extra mile when it comes to skincare. She's passionate about helping women discover a skincare routine that suits them best.

What Are the Best Alternatives to Urban Outfitters?

If you love retro outfits, classic tees, and stylish linen, then you've probably shopped at Urban Outfitters more than a few times. This clothing store has been around for many years, and it continues to remain a favorite among lovers of fashion and home accessories. Despite being a retail chain, Urban Outfitters attract repeat customers through their unique designs that stand the test of time.

Shopping at Urban Outfitters is always fun and memorable. But even if it seems to have everything, the brand falls short when it comes to variety of styles and sizes. You'll find more size-inclusive brands out there, as well as stores that provide a more extensive collection of formal wear. Keep reading to learn the best stores similar to Urban Outfitters.

Stores Like Urban Outfitters

1. Madewell
2. Frank & Oak
3. Lulus
4. Reformation
5. Boohoo
6. Topshop
7. Zara
8. ASOS
9. Revolve
10. Nasty Gal

1. Madewell

Madewell is the go-to store for all things denim. The company has made a name for making great jeans. And they certainly know how to live up to their name. Loyal customers can't stop raving about the quality of their jeans: the color lasts, the shape holds up, and the style remains relevant. Despite being known primarily for its denim products, Madewell also offers shoes, accessories, and beauty products. They've also worked hard on being more size-inclusive over the past couple of years.

2. Frank & Oak

Frank & Oak is relatively new, but it has quickly emerged as one of the most exciting fast fashion brands. Despite being based in Canada, it's considered by many as an excellent Urban Outfitters alternative. Both companies show a keen focus on sustainable practices. Frank & Oak leads by example through their unique design philosophy, offering fashionable pieces that keep up with the latest trends and last for a long time to ensure minimal environmental impact.

3. Lulus

Lulus is all about affordable luxury. It's always thrilling to shop at their online store knowing full well that you'll receive a quality and elegant piece without hurting your pocket. The company takes pride in investing in superior manufacturing as well as high-end finishes, enabling them to cater to the ever-evolving needs of its customers. If you're looking for a store like Urban Outfitters that offers topnotch luxury, then Lulus should definitely make it to your list.

4. Reformation

Here's another brand that shares many similarities with Urban Outfitters. For starters, Reformation is known for their chic, boho-inspired designs, which fans of Urban Outfitters will surely love. Every single item that makes it to their shelves feel high-end, yet they don't come with steep prices. In fact, you might be able to get two to three beautiful finds for just $100, especially during their promotions.

5. Boohoo

Boohoo has been around since 2006. While it's not the most popular fast-fashion retailer, it has managed to establish its reputation for creating some of the most unique designs out of all fashion brands out there. The company boasts an impressive 500 new product designs a week. That should give you more than enough to choose from. Nothing compares to Boohoo when it comes to making fashion fun and accessible.

6. Topshop

Topshop is a name that should ring a bell among fashion lovers. For many of its fans, Topshop is a premier fashion store, one that they return to over and over because of its timeless designs geared toward the most sophisticated and mature fashionista. They offer simple yet form-fitting tees, sexy dresses, and stylish shoes. Although Topshop will set you back a bit more than Urban Outfitters, it's a fashion retailer worth checking out.

7. Zara

Zara is among the most recognizable brands in the fashion world, and for good reason. The fast-fashion chain has its way of endearing its customers through trendsetting styles. It's quite rare for fashion retailers to consistently churn out new designs that their customers always look forward to, yet Zara seems to be doing it effortlessly for several years. That familiar Zara feel is just hard to beat.

8. ASOS

It's reasonable to say that this list of stores like Urban Outfitters wouldn't be complete without including ASOS. Thousands of customers flock to ASOS stores for all of their clothing needs. This isn't surprising when you consider that ASOS has a limitless selection of clothes. Not to mention, they cater to a wide range of sizes. Cheap but chic tops, edgy clothing, and hard-to-resist accessories are all commonplace in ASOS. Many items cost less than $30, which should give you a clue as to how affordable their products are.

9. Revolve

Revolve is an online clothing store that features some of the most famous designer clothing brands. If you haven't checked out their website, then you should do so right now. You might be surprised to see your favorite designer apparel, shoes, and accessories. Its vast clothing selection makes it a worthy alternative to Urban Outfitters. Prices are comparatively higher, but this should be expected considering that you're getting products from designer brands.

10. Nasty Gal

It's fascinating to think that Nasty Gal had its roots in a small apartment in San Francisco. Today, fashionistas from all corners of the globe couldn't get enough of all the clothes, shoes, and accessories created by Nasty Gal. The brand has grown thanks to its commitment to helping women feel confident about their own style, flaunting it despite any perceived flaws they might have. This brand knows how to deliver precisely what a constantly growing woman needs. It doesn't hurt that they run promotions frequently as well, slashing off prices by as much as 50%.

Comments

Theblogchick from United States on June 21, 2020:

I personally like bohoo Carson. I find their clothing cheap and trendy. Your article have some great choices.

Liz Westwood from UK on June 15, 2020:

It's interesting to note a few names familiar in the UK in your list. Today is significant as retail stores are opening up to the public for the first time since lockdown in March.

Dolores's interest in fashion history dates from her teenage years when vintage apparel was widely available in thrift stores.

Historical Dress of the American West

The clothing of women in the historic American West encompasses a wide variety of styles, construction, and materials, depending on climate, ethnic tradition, socioeconomic status, and availability of materials.

The type of garments women wore also depended on occasion. Everyday clothing needed to be simple for ease of movement while working, as well as tough and durable. Most women in the Old West (as well as everywhere else) owned far fewer garments than modern women. Clothing was handmade, and resources were limited. Special occasions called for garments made of finer materials, more complicated construction, and embellishments.

The type of clothing women wore also varied due to climate, from the harsh winds of the prairie to the cold winters of the Rocky Mountains, from the wide daily temperature fluctuations of desert regions to the moist Pacific Northwest.

There was no single Western style in the vast area that stretched from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean and from Canada to Mexico. Between 1830–1900, the American West was home to a wide diversity of indigenous nations and tribes, Spanish speaking people of the Southwest, Chinese and European immigrants, African Americans, and white Americans from the East. As people adapted to changing circumstances and resources, clothing changed with white women wearing fringed buckskin and indigenous women wearing Victorian garments.

Indigenous Peoples of the Americas

Clothing of Indigenous American women depended on locale, resources, tribal affiliation, occasion, and status. While daily wear was usually simple, women wore fancier clothing for special occasions that featured more complicated work, as well as decorative elements like fringe, animal teeth, porcupine quillwork, silver, turquoise, abalone, and beads made of shell and bone (later glass and ceramic).

Women of the Great Plains

Indigenous American women of the Great Plains used the hides of antelope, deer, and elk to make soft dresses, tunics, and leggings.

Sioux Women

Sioux women typically wore a knee-length dress or tunic, in a loose T-shirt style, with variations depending on tribe, marital status, socioeconomic status, and occasion. A woman married to a highly-skilled hunter would incorporate more elk teeth than the wife of a less successful hunter. Bones could also be made to look like elk teeth.

Lakota Women

Dresses with heavily beaded yokes were worn by Lakota women for special occasions. Blue, symbolizing water, was the most popular color between 1850 - 1870.

Cheyenne, Osage, Chippewa, and Pawnee Women

Women wore a two-piece outfit consisting of a skirt and cape. Chippewa women incorporated floral designs into their garments while Lakota women used geometric shapes in their designs.

Other Great Plains Dress

Moccasins varied depending on tribe and climate. In winter, moccasins were lined with fur for warmth. They could be elaborately embellished for special occasions. Buffalo robes were worn for the cold winter prairie.

Trade cloth became an essential element in the late 1800s. When the bison were exterminated by white hunters and game became scarce, women used milled fabric brought from the East to create traditional-style garments or garments influenced by Victorian styles.

Hair usually hung in two braids, which could be decorated with leather strips, bones, shells, or other natural objects.

Ornate jewelry was made of trade goods like shells. Hairpipe, tubular beads made of shell or bird bones, were used to make chokers, necklaces, earrings, and decorations for hair. Quillwork was a popular element used for bracelets, earrings, and hair clips.

Women of the Southwest

Indigenous American women of the Southwest used deerskin, sheepskin, wool, and cotton for clothing construction. Upright looms, used since at least 1200 CE, were used to make fabric of wool or cotton, which was grown in some areas cultivated from a wild form of cotton.

European Influence on Clothing

In the 16th century, Spanish invaders brought the Churra sheep to the New World. The hardy breed was well-suited for the harsh environment and soon became popular with Southwestern tribes for food and weaving. Early woven goods were produced in neutral colors with the occasional use of indigo (acquired by trade). Later, bright colors were incorporated by a raveling technique where other fabrics were taken apart and the wool thread reused for unique designs.

In the mid-1800s, the American government decimated the South West tribes, as well as flocks of what had become known as Navajo churro. Women turned to mill produced fabrics to create traditional-style garments like mantas and conchos (a stamped or inlaid silver ornament), as well as European inspired styles like three- or four-tiered skirts.

Navajo and Hopi Women

Navajo and Hopi women wore their hair in a chongo, hair tied in a twist at the back of the head. Unmarried women wore their hair in squash blossom whorls, elaborate hairdos featuring a whorl of hair on each side of the head.

Women wore moccasins, often colored white with kaolin white clay. The clay was also used to create white buckskin dresses.

Pre-Spanish jewelry consisted of pendants made of shells, coral, and beads. In the 1800s, silver became the new traditional jewelry for necklaces, earrings, bracelets, rings, and other decorations on conchos. Turquoise had long been worn in jewelry and associated with the sky, strength, and good fortune.

Women of the Pacific Northwest

Rich natural resources of the Pacific Northwest encouraged an Indigenous American population denser than other areas. Tlinget and Suquamish women made fabric out of red cedar bark while the Pomo used redwood bark. Tree bark was dried and shredded to weave shirts and aprons.

Inland tribes relied on deer for buckskin dresses and leggings that were trimmed with fringe on the bottom of the skirts and the ends of the sleeves. Animal teeth, claws, bones, and walrus tusk ivory were used to make jewelry including bracelets and necklaces. Women of high status wore pendants made of abalone shells.

Inland women wove basketry hats featuring geometric designs.

Clothing of the Elite Immigrants

The West offered more opportunities to women than their eastern counterparts. Spanish speaking women of the Southwest retained control of marital property after the death of their husbands. They also owned half of the property in marriage, unlike women in the East. Female owned ranches provided some women with great wealth.

Clothing followed the Victorian fashion of the day. Wealthy women hired seamstresses to create their garments. Low cut necklines and short sleeves were worn for evening and formal occasions. High necklines and long sleeves were worn during the day. Fabrics included silk, linen, brocades, and velvet.

• The 1830s: Fashions of the 1830s featured full, puffy sleeves with the puffs worn low on the arm with long sleeves, higher on the arm for evening dresses with shorter sleeves. Skirts were dome-shaped and pleated. Capelets or trippets draped over the shoulders like a mini shawl. Hair was parted in the center, pulled into a bun at the back of the head, or coiled into braids for a top knot. Curls hung at the side of the head.
• The 1840s: In the 1840s, full dome-shaped skirts with wide flounces were worn over layers of petticoats. Sleeves were worn tight at the top of the arm but flared out below the elbow. Hair was worn in a bun at the back of the head, or in a braided top knot with side curls framing the face. Hair could be pulled back smoothly or looped at the side of the head in a style that resembles a bob.
• The 1850s: In the 1850s, wide domed shaped skirts worn over layers of crinoline were the rage. Tiers and flounces decorated skirts—lace, ruching, and ribbons decorated dresses made of silk or other fine fabrics. Hairstyles featured a center part with side curls and a bun worn at the back.
• The 1860s: By the 1860s, fullness appeared at the back of the skirt, which was flatter in front than in the 1850s. Tight bodices featured a low shoulder line and wide, flared sleeves with lace collar and cuffs.
• The 1870s: In the 1870s, skirts were layered and trimmed in ruffles and flounces with bustles accenting the rear of the skirt. Tight bodices fell to the hips with either tight or slight bell-shaped sleeves. Hair pulled toward the back with curls cascading down the back of the head.
• The 1880s: In the1880s, skirts were narrow with lots of ruffles and trim. Mid-decade, skirts widened, and the bustle reappeared. Later, an overskirt draped horizontally or diagonally in the front. Bodices were shorter with pointed Vs at the bottom and high collars with white ruffles.

Before the advent of the railroad, even the wealthy were constrained by the vast distances of the American West. Influential fashion magazines like Godey's Lady's Book, as well as fabrics, took months to reach women in the West, so new clothing styles appeared much later than in the East.

The Transcontinental Railroad (1869) improved travel, communication, and the availability of information, fabrics, and decorative elements. This helped the Western elite become more up to date.

Clothing of the Pioneers

Most women of the time owned few garments, one or two day-dresses and an outfit for special occasions. Everyday garments were simple while Sunday dress, made of finer materials, featured more tailoring, detail, and embellishments. Hemlines for day wear usually fell shorter than those of women in the East.

Pioneer women worked hard. Women needed tough, durable clothing. Fabrics included:

• Linsey-woolsey: Linsey-woolsey was a warm, durable, and inexpensive fabric. It was made with a linen warp and wool weft. Later, cotton replaced linen.
• Osnaburg: Osnaburg was a cheap, loosely woven fabric made of flax and later cotton.
• Homespun: Homespun fabric was spun and woven at home. The look and texture depended on the skill of the weaver.
• Buckskin: Buckskin was made of softened deer hide. It protected the body from the wind and was tough and durable.
• Jean: Jean was a cotton fabric that was similar to denim but more lightweight.
• Muslin: Muslin was a cotton fabric used for undergarments and as a lining material.
• Linen: Linen was made of flax, an early crop often grown by pioneers. Though making linen was labor-intensive, the only cost was for the seeds.
• Calico: Calico was cotton printed with three or four colors, usually dark florals as dark colors hide stains.

Women wore Mother Hubbard dresses, which were loose-yoke topped, waistless garments with high necks and long sleeves. Aprons created a waistline. Aprons were an essential part of a woman's wardrobe as they protected dresses, skirts, and bodices from soil or stains.

Women who lived in town who were teachers or middle-class, dressed in a more stylish manner than women who worked on ranches and farms.

Most women made their own clothes during the winter. Fabric remnants or pieces of worn-out garments were used to make aprons, bonnets, collars, cuffs, curtains, and clothing for children.

Bonnets were also made of scrap cloth with stiffening in the lining. An extended brim in front and an apron that hung down the back of the neck protected the skin from the sun and blowing dirt, as well as shaded the eyes. Bonnets sported decorative ruffles, piping, braiding, or ribbons. Special occasion bonnets matched Sunday dress.

Pioneers brought shoes and boots with them on the wagon train. Women also made moccasins from buckskin.

By 1895 mail order catalogs like Sears and Montgomery Ward offered corsets, hats, skirts, blouses (called waists), gloves, shoes, and other ready made garments, accessories, and notions.

Undergarments

Pioneer women strove to maintain their dignity in the face of harsh circumstances. They adhered to European traditional dress by wearing corsets, especially when visiting, and for going to town or church. There are photographs of women traveling with wagon trains who are obviously corseted.

Wearing a corset was not a choice in those days; it was just done. Whether they wore corsets under loose dresses while working is anyone's guess. Undergarments were rarely mentioned in diaries, hence the old term for underwear, "unmentionables." The term "loose woman" means a woman without a corset.

A chemise was a loose, linen or muslin shift worn under the corset. This short-sleeved, knee or calf-length garment protected dresses from perspiration. The wide neckline featured a drawstring. A chemise could be worn for sleep instead of a nightgown.

Drawers were optional but often worn in colder months for added warmth.

Cowgirls and Characters

It seems crazy to think that women rode sidesaddle with both legs hanging over the same side of a horse. Few women rode astride until the early 1900s. Of course there were outliers like Calamity Jane who often posed for photographs dressed like a man. Stagecoach Mary Fields (the first African American woman to work as a contractor for the U.S. Postal Service driving a stagecoach) wore pants. The Spanish speaking woman from Texas at the top of the article is wearing pants. But, for the most part, women wore long dresses.

If you look closely at the photograph above, you can see the pommel of the saddle is off to the side—a feature unique to a sidesaddle.

"My sister, Mattie, just older than me, could ride, rope, and shoot as good as anybody I ever saw. I've seen her on some pretty mean horses, riding her side-saddle but she sure could handle them." — Mrs. Mary Leakey Miles from Folkstuff and Folkways, U. S. Library of Congress

In the early 1900s, women began to wear divided skirts in order to ride astride, a practice once seen as vulgar and inappropriate. Short, calf-length skirts were worn by performers, entertainers, and sharpshooters like Annie Oakley.

For Further Reading

How the West Was Worn: Bustles and Buckskins in the Wild Frontier by Chris Enss

Calico Dresses and Buffalo Robes American West Fashions From the 1840s–1890s by Katherine Kruhn

Native American Clothing: An Illustrated History by Theodore Brasser

African American Women of the Old West by Tricia Martineau

Black Women of the Old West by Loren Katz

Testimonos: Early California Through the Eyes of Women by Rose Marie Beebe

Dress of the Oregon Trail Emigrants 1843–1855 Iowa State University

© 2020 Dolores Monet

Comments

Dolores Monet (author) from East Coast, United States on February 24, 2020:

Hi Genna - some garments were spot cleaned with home made cleaning fluids with ingredients like turpentine, honey, gin, and French clay. Cottons (like calico and muslin), jean, and linen was cleaned in a large tub with lye soap and hot water.

A "dolly" was a large stick with what looked like a small stool at the bottom used to agitate clothing in hot water. Many garments were soaked overnight. Boiled water was mixed with soap and allowed to cool before soaking clothes.

For certain stains onion or lemon juice came in handy. Borax was introduced in the late 1800s and kept fabric from fading. Vinegar was used as a cleaning agent and prevented the fading of pinks and greens.

Washed garments were dried on a line, spread on bushes or on the ground to dry in the sun. The clothes were starched with home made starch (easy to do, I've done it myself) then ironed. A heavy iron was heated on the stove before being used to press clothing.

Genna East from Massachusetts, USA on February 23, 2020:

What an interesting and entertaining article. Whether deerskin, wool, silk, linen, etc., I've often wondered how women kept their garments clean. Thank you for this delightful read.

Dolores's interest in fashion history dates from her teenage years when vintage apparel was widely available in thrift stores.

Background

The late Victorian era was a time of great prosperity. Technical advances created the birth of the large corporation and unfettered capitalism. It was a time of optimism and opportunity, conspicuous consumption, and corruption. Industrialization brought people to cities, and urban areas grew. Railroads increased ease and availability of travel and the ability to move products long distances quickly. The late 1800s saw the invention or development of commercial and household electricity, the telephone and the telegraph, electric streetcars, mail order catalogs, and department stores.

The era can be viewed as one long stream of contradictions—a time of prosperity interrupted by the Long Depression of 1873–1879 and the Panic of 1893. While the elite built extravagant homes, workers lived in crowded tenements, and the economic downturns forced workers to accept lower wages just to feed their families.

Mark Twain's term the "Gilded Age" (1870–1900) refers to a gleaming exterior that covers a sub-par interior. La Belle Epoque (The Beautiful Era) also refers to the same time period, from the 1870s–1914.

Men's Fashion Overview

To modern eyes, there was little change in men's styles over the years of the late Victorian era. Variations in collar height, the visibility of waistcoats (vests), and jacket closures are subtle. Clothing represented status. Better clothing was a sign of good breeding, taste, and sense. Wealth signified moral character, and the well-dressed man was viewed as better in every way than those who stood on the lower rungs of the socio-economic ladder.

The greatest variety of style can be seen in how men dressed for different occasions or the time of day. A gentleman wore specific garments for morning formal occasions or evening events, for outdoor activities, for general day wear, and after sunset.

Extreme styles, loud colors, or wild combinations were viewed as unmanly or loutish. New styles were generally worn by the young, while older or conservative men stuck to older style garments.

Hair

Most men of the era wore their hair short. One of the greatest ways to stand out in a crowd was facial hair. In the middle of the century, full beards ruled. As the Industrial Revolution brought more men indoors, a full beard suggested a viral, outdoor kind of guy. A man with a full beard appeared strong and wise.

As the century progressed and full beards fell out of fashion, men grew some very creative facial hair.

• Muttonchops were exaggerated sideburns.
• Side whiskers were muttonchops taken to an extreme. They hung well below the jawline.
• A goatee featured hair on the chin but not the cheeks.
• Van Dykes were hair on the chin paired with a moustache with no hair on the cheeks.
• The Walrus moustache grew down past the outer edge of the mouth, sometimes to the jawline.
• A handlebar moustache extended outwards and could be turned upwards at the ends, the hair held in place by wax.

By the end of the century, most men were clean shaven.

Jackets or Coats

Worn as part of a suit, jackets varied over time as well as time of day and occasion. While wide lapels ruled mid century by the 1880s lapels became narrow and jackets buttoned high. In the 1890s, jacket sleeves were short enough to reveal the lower part of shirt cuffs.

Coats

Frock Coats had been worn for formal day wear or professional attire since the early Victorian era. A Prince Albert was double breasted but a frock coat could also be single breasted. These knee length jackets were close fitted with a vent at the rear and a horizontal seam at the waist. It buttoned to the waist. A frock coat did not match the trousers which could be grey, striped, plaid, or checked. By the 1890s, frock coats were worn only by the elderly, or for diplomatic occasions.

Morning coats were originally developed for horseback riding, a popular morning activity for gentlemen. The single breasted jacket curved back from just above the waist and displayed the lower part of a waistcoat at the front. The long, parted section of the back earned the name "cut-away" in the UK, "tails" in the USA. Now we view tails as formal attire but during the late Victorian era, morning coats were informal dress.

A morning coat could be worn with striped trousers. Morning coats eventually replaced frock coats as formal day wear for professional work, weddings, funerals, and other day time special occasions.

A tailcoat or dress coat is very similar to a morning coat. Instead of a gradual curve from front waist to rear, the difference in lengths (front to back) is more pronounced. This coat was worn with matching trousers with decorative braid or trim down the length. A tailcoat is double breasted.

Jackets

Sack jackets or lounge coats were what we think of when we picture a modern man's suit jacket. Originally worn for informal occasions in the countryside or at the beach, a sack coat fell to the hips and had no seam at the waist. They were made of wool for winter or linen for the warmer months, and had three outer pockets.

Early versions featured a loose fit but became more fitted toward the end of the century. While frock and morning coats required tailoring and alterations, the looseness of the sack coat made it easier to make, allowing for mass production. They were available off the rack at department stores or through catalogs.

Sack jackets were worn with matching trousers. Though dark or neutral colors predominated by the 1890s, early versions appeared in plain colors, checked, or plaid.,

The Tuxedo or dinner jacket was based on the sack jacket and became formal evening dress in the late 1800s. They often featured satin lapels.

The Norfolk jacket worn for outdoor activities like hiking and shooting, featured a belt and was usually checked or tweed.

Waistcoat or Vest

Waistcoats or vests were simple, sleeveless garments with deep or shallow necks, buttoned down the front. Openings could be V or U shaped. Small pockets on the lower part of the vest were often used for a watch and chain (before wristwatches).

Waistcoats were always worn over a white shirt. Even laborers wore vests at work as appearing in only a shirt was considered inappropriate. Working men wore vests of heavy cotton or denim. Upper class men wore silk or wool broadcloth vests. Broadcloth, also used for jackets and trousers, is a large piece of wool that is felted or shrunk in hot, soapy water creating a fabric with no visible weave. Summer versions appeared in linen, heavy cotton, or seersucker.

While early Victorian vests could be quite colorful featuring printed silk designs, later Victorian waistcoats were usually black, grey, or white. Waistcoats featured straps at the back to ensure a snug fit.

While waistcoats featured lapels, those worn for formal occasions had no lapels.

Trousers

Trousers did not change much after the mid 1800s. Loose cut trousers were worn for day wear and informal occasions while narrow trousers were worn in the evening and for dress. Some trousers for evening featured braid or piping running along the length of the leg.

Day wear trousers appeared in stripes, plaid, or checks. By the late 1800s, trousers matched both jacket and waistcoat. Creases appeared in the 1890s. Cuffs were not in vogue until Edward VII introduced the style in the 1890s while he was the fashionable Prince of Wales. Trousers were supported with suspenders or braces, not belts. Trousers fastened with buttons as zippers had not yet been invented.

• Knickerbockers, worn for outdoor activities like hunting, biking, shooting, hiking, and golf ended at the knee and were worn with knee high socks and sturdy shoes or high boots.
• Jodpurs, worn for equestrian activities and sports fit tight at the knee and puffed out at the thighs. These were often worn with a jacket that flared at the hips.

Hats

The iconic top hat was worn for both day and evening formal occasions. The tall stovepipe hat of mid century shortened during the late Victorian era. Usually black, top hats also appeared in charcoal or grey. A wide black band surrounded the tall crown for mourning, worn after the death of a family member.

Top hats were originally mate of felted beaver fur, later of silk hatter's plush (a soft silk weave). The hats were brushed to a fine sheen. Mercury used in the production of top hats is poisonous with symptoms including dementia and hallucination giving rise to the phrase "mad as a hatter."

A derby or bowler featured a hard, rounded crown and narrow, upturned brim. First created as protective gear, it became the first mass produced hat. Worn by factory managers and bookkeepers, the inexpensive ready made hat became hugely popular. Despite stereotypes of cowboy hats and stetsons, the derby was the most frequently worn hat of the American west.

Boaters were made of stiff, braided straw. They featured a flat crown and a wide, flat brim. A ribbon surrounded the crown. The cool summer style had specific dates (which varied regionally) when they could be worn.

Homburgs were introduced in the 1890s and were a favorite of Edward, Prince of Wales (the fashionable prince who gave his name to an era). Made of wool felt with a flattish brim, Homburgs featured a dent in the center of the crown running from front to back.

Shirts and Ties

White shirts worn for formal and professional day wear featured stuff, starched shirt fronts. A plain white shirt was always worn with a vest. Stiff, standing collars widened up to three inches tall in the 1890s.

Removable collars and cuffs became popular in the 1880s. The collars could be worn straight up or folded over. In the 1890s pastel or striped shirts were paired with removable white collars. The removable starched linen collars and cuffs meant that one shirt could be worn for days.

The elite wore custom tailored shirts but mass produced, ready-to-wear shirts became available at men's shops or the new department stores.

Shirts were made of linen, cotton, lawn (very light weight cotton or linen), or cambric. Flannel shirts were provided warmth and a causal feel in the country side.

Simple bow ties were popular in short or longer versions. Ascots gained popularity in the 1870s for both formal and informal occasions. Ascots could be tied simply or in complicated knots. The ascot gave birth to the necktie as we know it today. Late Victorian neck ties were shorter than modern versions. Stick pins were worn with ascots as well as neck ties.

Overcoats

Overcoats were worn full or ankle length or could be calf length. Top coats ended at the hips. Several styles of coats were popular.

• The Chesterfield, a herringbone tweed coat, featured a velvet collar.
• Tweed Ulster coats were worn loose or belted with a detachable hood or cape. The cape fell to the elbow.
• A Mackintosh was a waterproof all weather coat. Wool cloth was coated on one side with dissolved rubber with another layer of wool on top.
• The Inverness originated as a sleeved coat with a long cape. By the 1870s, the cape was divided into wing like sections. Lapels appeared in some versions while others had no lapels. It looked like a cape worn over a coat and provided extra weather protection for carriage drivers and others who spent a lot of time outdoors.

Undergarments and Sleepwear

Until the 1890s, men slept in a nightshirt, a long loose fitting dress like garment that could reach to the knees or longer. They could be gathered at the neck with a drawstring or feature a neat collar.A nightcap was worn in cold weather.

By the end of the century, pajamas came into vogue. Called a sleeping suit, or pyjamas in the UK, pj's came in silk or wool and in colors and stripes. Men also wore robes.

During the late Victorian era, men's undergarments were made in factories and available at department stores or men's clothiers. High waisted drawers could be knee or ankle length. They featured an access hatch or drop seat in back and a fly front fastened with buttons.

A vest or undershirt was square cut and plain, hanging below the waist. Drawers and vests were made of flannel or wool. Combinations or union suits, similar to jump suits or one piece garments were also worn..

Shoes and Socks

• Socks made of Balbriggan, an Irish knit, were usually black and held up by garters.
• High top shoes featured pointed toes and could have laced or buttoned closures. For evening, a gentleman wore pattent leather low rise shoes or low rise boots.
• In the 1880s, toes became blunt and squared off. Cloth topped half boots featured leather on the lower part of the shoe, with heavy cloth stitched on the upper part.
• Plimsolls or sneakers were rubber soled and were worn at the beach or for tennis. Keds were introduced in 1892.
• Rubber overshoes were available to protect feet from the rain. Rubber boots lined with wool provided warmth in winter and for snow.
• House slippers made of plush silk often featured elaborate embroidery. The slip on house shoes could be open or closed backed.

Swimwear

In England, men wore drawers for swimming. Women bathed at separate locations so going shirtless did not offend.

One piece, short-legged tank suits were popular in the USA where both genders bathed in the same areas. Separates included knee-length breeches and a short-sleeved or sleeveless shirt. Swim wear was made of jersey, a wool knit.

Clothing of the Lower Class

Working class men wore ready made garments constructed of inexpensive fabrics like cotton, wool, denim, or corduroy. Corduroy is a warm, ribbed fabric that is both soft and durable and was used in making trousers, vests, and jackets. Laborers and factory workers all wore a vest over their shirts.

Of course, lower class men could not afford or have reason to make all the daily clothing changes of the elite. Most lower class men owned a sack jacket and good trousers for special occasions. This Sunday best lasted a lifetime.

Sweaters, often worn by fishermen and rural people of cold climates were hand knit. Some fishing families or regions made sweaters with distinctive colors or patterns. Wool sweaters are great insulators as wool keeps the body warm even if it becomes wet. Victorian fishermen, as well as their wives and daughters, knit.

Bib overalls were introduced in the 1890s.

For Further Reading

History of Men's Fashion by Farid Chenoune

Englishman's Suit by Hardy Amies

Elegance and Style 200 Years of Men's Fashion by Vittoria De Buzzaccarini

Handbook of English Costume in the 19th Century by Alan Mansfield and Phyllis Cunningham

A History of Men's Fashion by Nicholas Storey

Dolores's interest in fashion history dates from her teenage years when vintage apparel was widely available in thrift stores.

Dating Old Photographs by Clothing

Trying to identify ancestors while looking at old photographs can be a bit of a challenge, especially if you have one of those families where the same face reappears every generation or so. One method is to study what kind of clothing a subject is wearing in a portrait. This is easiest if the subject is female as women's fashions change more quickly than for men.

In general, old photos of family members were posed and usually taken by professional photographers. Even when people began to use their own cameras, subjects were often posed. People dressed their best for these portraits in new, fashionable garments. Pictures of younger women typically show contemporary style trends. Older women often stick to older styles. You may see this stereotype portrayed in older movies and TV shows where old women wore costumes that were a generation outdated.

If the subject of your picture lived in a city, clothing style will better reflect the style of the day than if she lived in a rural area. People on the higher end of the economic spectrum also appear more fashionable than the less well off.

That is not to say that all older, rural, or lower class people were way behind the time. Sometimes the lag was only a few years. And less well off women with good sewing skills could copy high-end fashion using inexpensive fabrics.

What to Look for When Dating Photos

• People dressed in their newest garments for photographic portraits
• Clothing can help date a photograph within 5–10 years
• Full body shots are easiest to date
• Garment details can help date an old photograph
• Pictures of young people reflect contemporary styles

How to Use a Photo's Background and Other Clues to Determine Date

It helps to have some reference points and some knowledge of your family tree. Name and dates of your ancestors will help you figure out who a particular person is by looking at their clothing.

One exception is when people dressed in period costumes for parties. I have a lovely picture of a great aunt dressed like Marie Antoinette. Well, of course, they didn't have photography in those days so the picture could not have been from the 1790s.

Women's garments often made significant changes within a five-year span so you may be able to pinpoint a photograph into a small range of time. That does not mean that you can look at all your old photographs and pinpoint the exact date. You are looking for clues.

Look at the background for clues. I found a wonderful old photo of a young woman dressed in like a cabaret entertainer. Lucky for me there is a calendar in the background!

Snapshots that show a house can help if you know when your family lived in that house. You can also check the background for things like vehicles, TVs or TV antennas, and kitchen appliances.

Military uniforms change over the years. The same can be true for nurses. If your family member is wearing a World War I uniform, you can guess the picture was taken between 1915–1918.

Full Body or Head Shot

When trying to identify clothing styles, it is easier if you have a full body shot. That way, you can study hemlines, skirt draping, sleeve length, and waistlines.

Closer shots that only show the subject's head and upper torso will be more challenging. In this case, you must study details like collars and collar decoration, hair, hats, upper bodice (or blouse), shoulders, and the tops of the sleeves. While this will take some attention, you may note a significant detail.

Shoes and footwear may not be helpful in very old photos. Long skirts often covered footwear. Also, shoe and boot styles could be worn over long periods of time. High button boots, for instance, were popular for over thirty years.

How to Identify Fashions From the 1860s

Skirts

In the early 1860s, women wore wide skirts with flounces. Crinolines or hoops often created very large skirts. By the mid-decade, the skirt appears flatter in the front with most of the volume toward the rear. Skirts were often decorated with frills, trim, or heavy flounces.

In the mid-1860s, walking skirts featured cords to pull up the hem so the fabric would not drag on the ground.

Bodices

Pagoda sleeves of the early part of the decade were narrow at the shoulder and wide at the wrist, worn with white undersleeves which peeked out above the wrist.

Later in the decade, Bishop's sleeves were full, long sleeves gathered at the wrist. Bell sleeves fit tightly at the upper arm and widened at the elbow, open at the wrist. The bell sleeves of the late 1860s were cut so they curved up on the underside of the forearm.

Yolked bodices show horizontal seams that extend from the upper arms across the chest. Yokes were edged with small ruffles. The shoulder line, in general, was low with shoulder seams appearing at the upper arm instead of at the natural shoulder line.

Outfits appear somewhat high waisted. The lower edge of the bodice ended in two points just below the waist.

In the late 1860s, the bolero jacket ended above the waist, was worn open, and was decorated with braiding.

Hair was parted in the middle. Earrings often dangled and were ornate. Wide belts accentuated tiny waists. Brooches were worn on high collars.

How to Identify Fashions From the 1870s

Skirts

Skirts gathered toward the rear forming a soft bustle. Early 1870s bustles set high, then lowered toward the end of the decade featuring layers decorated with ruffles or edging. The bustle fashion ended by 1877 though skirts were still gathered toward the rear. (Bustles reappeared in the 1880s)

Skirts became more narrow at the end of the decade. A layered look featured an underskirt as well as copious ruffles, flounces, and lace.

The princess line was a dress without waist definition. The slim line extended below the hips where the dress was elaborately decorated with ruffles, ribbons, bows, and puffs.

Skirts featured trains.

Bodices

Women wore a long, tight bodice or a flat front type shirt. The bodice flared out over the hips. The late 70s saw a longer waistline and a very long bodice that fell below the hips and could reach the knees. Necklines were low and square for evening. Day-time necklines could be V-shaped with an insert. High necks worn for daytime featured lace and ruffles. Many necklines showed low in front and very high at the back of the neck.

The shoulder line returned to a natural position.

Sleeves fit tightly at 3/4 length or to the wrist.

Bows were everywhere, on skirts and bodices, and were often very large.

Hair was gathered tightly at the sides of the head and piled into elaborate coils on the top and toward the back. Loose curls hung down at the back. Bangs appeared in the mid-70s and were often crimped.

How to Identify Fashions From the 1880s

Skirts

Women's clothes were ornate and highly decorated with embellishments. Narrow skirts draped toward the back. The mid-1880s saw an extreme bustle, a horizontal projection at the rear. Bustles disappeared by the end of the decade.

Late 1880s skirts featured horizontal, drooped, or slightly diagonal draping created by tucked up over-skirts.

Polonaise-style meant that the front of the skirt was pulled up and toward the back exposing an underskirt.

Bodice

Bodices flared out some below the waist and were highly embellished. High necks often featured white lace or small white ruffles at the upper edge.

Sleeves were tight, stopping just short of the wrist. Later in the decade, sleeves loosened and featured light vertical puffs above the shoulder and were gathered at the wrist.

Bangs were still worn in the 80s. As the style faded, women could be seen with longer, parted bangs. Hair was drawn up into a loose bun.

How to Identify Fashions From the 1890s

During the 1890s, women's clothing simplified and appeared quite conservative compared to the ornate styles of the previous decade. Tailored suits introduced a slightly masculine look.

Loose blouses replaced tight bodices. Women often wore light-colored blouses tucked into dark skirts. Bell-shaped skirts fit tightly over the hips, flaring wide at the hem in the early part of the decade.

Sleeve details are the best way to date photos from this time.

• 1890 featured tight sleeves with a slight puff above the shoulder.
• By 1892 the upper arm and shoulder were encased in a huge puff called leg-o-mutton sleeves.
• In 1896 the huge sleeves deflated some. By 1897, though the puff remained, it was greatly diminished. Bows decorated a high neck now topped with a ruffle.
• Sleeves in 1898 were tight with a high puff ball at the top of the arm.

Long ties and bow ties were plain or frilly. Wide belts were popular. Straw boater hats were worn in warm weather. Hair was worn in a soft puff, topped with a loose bun.

Identifying Fashions From 1900–1910

A pigeon fronted S-shaped profile dominated the turn of the century. Skirts hugged the hips and widened near the hemline. Though the shirt waist and dark skirt remained popular, new new, soft femininity returned but with looser corseting.

The look was somewhat broad shouldered and top heavy with a puffy look and undefined bosom. Blouses were highly embellished with layers of lace, ruffles, and ribbons. The loose blouse tucked into a wide belt or cummerbund.

High necklines were often adorned with a small ruffle as well as lace. V necks were popular. Mid-decade featured a yolk fronted blouse decorated with lace. Bolero jackets and higher waistlines created by wide belting were popular mid-decade.

1908 saw a new slimming style paired with gigantic hats often decorated with feathers.

How to Identify Women's Fashions From 1910–1920

Though the blouse and dark skirt remained popular, fashions loosened up into a more comfortable style. Sheath-style dresses showed more ankle. Waistlines were less restricted. Tunic tops hung below the hips.

Sleeves were wide at the top and tapered toward the wrist.

The huge hats of the previous decade continued on for some years but grow smaller and more simple mid-decade.

By 1915, with the onset of WWI, a military look influenced women's clothing. Look for trench coats and military cut jackets. Hemlines rose to mid-calf and skirts widened in the War crinoline style.

The end of the decade saw a return to the looser sheath type dresses that would continue into the 1920s. Women often wore their hair in a low, loose bun. The sides often appear to be bobbed,

How to Identify 1920s Fashions

The loose style emerged into a look that de-emphasized the bust, waist, and rear. Tubular dresses featured a drop waistline with a low set belt. Early in the decade, hemlines fell below the calf. Hair was often bobbed and permed.

By the mid-1920s hemlines rose to the knees. While we associate the time with flappers, more conservative women still wore shorter hemlines than in the past. Long necklaces and bangle bracelets were popular. Wide headbands were worn across the forehead and even appeared on brides. Cloche hats were without brims.

A casual new look featured jersey knits, sportswear, pleated skirts and sweater sets with long, loose, pocketed cardigans. V-necks were often decorated with a bow. Suits, coats, and sweater often sported a long, low slung lapel.

In the past, short sleeves were rare. If a woman in a photo is wearing short sleeves, chances are that the picture was taken after 1920.

How To Identify Women's Fashions of the 1930s

The Great Depression introduced a new conservative style. Hemlines could be just below the knee or mid-calf. Bobbed hair was simple with less perming but gentle waves.

Dressy clothes featured a sleek look and often included diagonal lines. A bias cutting technique created a smooth, swinging, graceful silhouette. The waistline rose to more natural lines. Dresses and skirts were often belted.

Small collars, cowl collars, and Peter Pan collars appeared on plain cotton blouses, dressy blouses, and dresses. Blouses often featured soft bows or pussy cat bows at the neck and often featured short sleeves or high cap sleeves.

Prints came in geometric Art Deco styles, dots, floral, and novelty prints.

Sportswear became prevalent. Wide-legged lounge pants showed up at home or at the beach. A naval look cropped up in wide-collared, V-neck blouses with loose bows.

Hats were brimmed, sometimes wide brimmed with flat crowns. Some hats resembled cloche hats with a narrow brim.

At the end of the decade, hemlines rose to just below the knee. Dresses and suits began to feature small shoulder pads.

How to Identify Women's Fashions of the 1940s

Restrictions on the use of materials used to make clothing (due to WWII) resulted in knee-length hemlines and simple, classic lines. Shoulder pads and a slightly military look became popular.

Hair was worn longer than the previous decade in soft, low slung rolls. Hair nets and snoods appeared. As in World War I, women often appeared in uniform for work or volunteer service.

The trim look emphasized the bust, hips, and waistline.

Popular prints included polka dots and tropical flora.

In the late 1940s, post-war fashions introduced an hourglass silhouette with a tiny waistline and wide, crinoline skirts worn below the knee. Suits featured tight pencil skirts.

How to Identify Women's Clothing of the 1950s

Casual clothing became more prevalent in the 1950s. Snapshots show women wearing pedal pushers, slacks, or shorts.

An hourglass silhouette featured tiny waists, an ample bustline, and hips, all highlighted by swing skirts (like Dior's New Look).

Suits and sweater sets often featured pencil, or tight skirts and short sweaters or jackets.

Hair was cut shorter than in the 1940s.

Topper coats were large and loose, worn over slacks or slim skirts.

Young women often wore jeans that were sometimes rolled into a cuff. Saddle oxfords or tennis shoes were worn with jeans. Some young ladies wore short socks with a wide, circular skirt.

How to Identify 1960s Fashions

Early 1960s fashions looked much like the 50s but quickly loosened up. The mature look gave way to a youthful and playful style. Shift dresses and shirt-waisted dresses came in floral or geometric prints. Hems grew shorter.

Early 60s hair puffed large and smooth. The new casual style showed women in photographs wearing very casual clothes like Bermuda shorts (plain or plaid) and mid-midriff tops.

As the decade progressed hemlines shortened to mini skirts. Sheaths loosened into tent dresses in bright colors and bold prints. Pale lipstick is obvious even in black and white photos. Makeup emphasized the eyes. Jewelry was cheap and chunky.

Late in the decade, casual style offered blue jeans, tee shirts, chunky boots, and sandals. Bell bottom pants flared out below the knee. Ethnic and historic influences featured Dashiki shirts, fringed cowboy jackets, and long necklaces.

More photographs appeared in color than in black and white.

How to Identify Women's Fashions of the 1970s

It's easy to identify a photograph from the 1970s because they all (almost) turned orangey/yellow. It's your biggest clue if you're looking at a snapshot.

The hippie look of the past decade continued on for some time. Denim was king. Edwardian style prairie dresses featured flounces and small floral prints in styles that often appear in wedding photos. Peasant skirts, dresses, and skirts featured embroidery and loose, wide sleeves. Western-style was popular with Western cut shirts, leather vests, wide-brimmed hats, and fringed jackets.

Waistlines rose, sometimes above the natural waist.

Bright, bold colors gave way at the end of the decade to earth tones in orange, brown, tan, and avocado green.

Pantsuits were worn with blouses with bows.

Later in the decade jersey wrap dresses hung below the knee. The bell bottoms reduced to a flare, becoming straight legged. Slogan tee shirts were worn with jeans.

Chunky heeled and high platform shoes were popular.

Long hair was worn straight or feathered. The shag haircut was a choppy, layered style. Large sunglasses were worn by everyone.

The late decade saw kaftan style dresses in bold prints. Punk and disco styles became popular.

The 1970s offered a wild, mishmash of looks that depended on individual style.

Dating Clues in Old Photographs - Resources

Fashion trends can only offer clues to the age of a picture. Styles bleed over into the next decade, and some women embrace the styles of youth even after those fashions become passe.

Research old photographs by studying pictures from various decades to begin to understand the look of each period.

Check out Wikimedia commons and look for "fashion by decade."

Find copies or online reprints of old catalogs to see the types of clothing worn by regular people.

Old Life Magazines are full of pictures of people.

Most libraries offer books about clothing. Start with an encyclopedia type book that presents clothing from an extended period of time.

Remember that old fashion plates and high style magazines are an early introduction to details of styles. Normal people would have worn the styles a bit later than the publication date of the plate.

Look at books as well. Some helpful books include:

Out of Style - An Illustrated Guide to Vintage Fashions by Betty Kreisel Shubert

Dressed for the Photographer - Ordinary Americans and Fashion 1840 - 1900 by Joan L. Severa

Lauren likes to delve into relevant topics concerning the pressures of unrealistic beauty standards and lack of representation.

Redefining Beauty Standards

With the ever-growing pressure from the public to redefine beauty standards, it’s apparent that representation in the fashion industry is rapidly changing. This season of Caribbean’s Next Top Model has gained the recent attention of a large international audience. Rather than getting notoriety for their innovative photoshoots or inspiring talent of hopeful models, it’s becoming a talking point for acceptance (or lack thereof) of natural beauty.

The conflict occurred during "Make-Over Week," which is when the models head to the salon to receive a look chosen by the panel of judges, and more specifically, the host and head judge, former Miss Universe Wendy Fitzwilliam. Contestant Gabriella Bernard was devastated when she learned that the judges had chosen to have Bernard chemically straighten, or relax, her natural hair.

A relaxer is a cream, generally used by people with high porosity hair types, that makes hair easier to straighten by chemically "relaxing" the natural curls. The active agent is usually sodium hydroxide or "lye," which can cause chemical burns to the scalp, permanent scarring, and even hair loss. The end result is well worth the risks for many women, leaving their hair straighter and seemingly more in-line with broadly represented fashion trends. However, for many their tight, natural curls are a part of what makes them uniquely beautiful.

Bernard considered her natural hair an integral part of both her professional brand and identity, stating in an interview with Daily Express that embracing her natural hair had facilitated a new form of confidence and positive self-esteem. However, pressured by the show executives, Bernard was told that she could either relax her hair or be sent home to no longer participate in the competition.

Feeling that she had come too far and that this may be her only opportunity for the career that she desired, Gabriella Bernard consented to the change that day, which was a decision that she would later regret.

"You Need to Understand My Hair Is My Identity”

After the models received their makeovers, they were taken to a photo shoot to model their new looks for the judges. However, before Bernard was even judged on her photo Fitzwilliam took the opportunity to chastise her for the emotion she displayed in the salon. Fitzwilliam deemed the young model’s behavior “naughty” and “unprofessional.” This ignited a flurry of international response from women all over the world, criticizing Fitzwilliam for her rebuke as culturally tone-deaf.

Gabriella has since spoken to various media outlets, calling for an apology from the former pageant queen—a call that has gone unanswered. Bernard has once again begun to transition back to a natural hairstyle. The model will also be participating in the 2018 Tobago Film Festival, screening her documentary Black Hair, a 20 minute documentary about her experience on the show.

Fans were dismayed by Fitzwilliam’s response and soon the story began to strike a chord with women worldwide. Gabriella was a participant in what is known as the Natural Hair Movement. This is a movement, which gained heavy traction in the US around the early 2000s, which encourages women of African descent to keep their natural high-porosity, textured hair. The pillars of the movement are founded on embracing yourself as you are naturally, and rejecting the idea that you need to alter yourself to be deemed beautiful. With the ever-growing pressure from the public to redefine beauty standards, it’s apparent that the representation in the fashion industry is rapidly changing.

Avid sneakerhead and streetwear enthusiast, Ian has been experimenting with style so you don't have to.

We've all done it before. We've seen a nice designer piece or a trendy garment, and we absolutely needed it. But usually, a person can't drop a couple thousand dollars on a pair of ripped jeans. So what would the regular person do? They'd go to Zara, H&M, or Topman and find the next best thing. And usually, it can't be beat—okay, quality garments for low prices and all a quick car ride or click away. But it's never really that simple, and fast fashion costs way more than what you may see on the rack.

A Quick Disclaimer

This article will talk about things that people may not find entirely comfortable. The business practices behind fashion companies are not always talked about, and so few people know where a lot of their clothes come from. This article will explore the less talked about, nastier part of the industry.

An Issue With Sustainability

Fast fashion is not sustainable at all. Just for a regular pair of blue jeans, it takes 2,000 gallons of water just to grow the cotton for a pair of jeans. And it takes about 713 gallons of water just to grow enough cotton for a regular t-shirt. This, unfortunately, can't really be avoided.

Fast fashion companies, however, worsen this practice. The dye behind any garment adds to the water footprint of production, and fast fashion companies often produce these garments inefficiently. This means that even more water is used to create those jeans and shirt that will probably last six months. Of course, agriculture, in general, takes a lot of water, but if your jeans take 2,000 gallons of water to make, you will probably want them to last for longer than a year or so.

Problems With "On-Trend" Clothing

Another issue with sustainability is the process behind fast fashion. Fast fashion retailers work on an on-trend basis. This means the design, production, and consumption basis shortens from a months-long period to only weeks. This means that designers have no time to be creative, factories rarely have time to quality assess garments effectively, and the consumer gets the latest in-the-know clothing a week after it starts to trend.

This doesn't end well for anyone, as the market starts to rely entirely on riding and predicting trends, consumers dispose of their "so last month" garments in favor of new ones that will be out of fashion in a month, and originality in the market dies rapidly. Fast fashion, in no way, is meant to be sustainable, and it makes it blatantly obvious.

Labor and Economics

Well, maybe design processes and environmentalism aren't your biggest concern. But a major component to fast fashion is how inexpensive it is. How is all this clothing so inexpensive, though? The answer is slave labor. A pair of jeans can be made in India for 92 cents, which includes wages and safety measures for workers.

Sweatshops

Sweatshops in fashion are no secret, and it's even a joke for certain people about how common sweatshops are in the fashion industry. However, conditions are so much more worse than many may think. The workforce, which is disproportionately female, gets almost no workers' rights, including no maternity leave or paid sick leave. This means that the largely uninsured and underpaid workforce is constantly working for little to no pay in developing countries such as India and parts of Africa.

Poor Safety Standards

But it gets much worse, as the safety standards for these workers are also often unaccounted for and lacking in any real consideration. In 2014, in Bangladesh, the Rana Plaza factory collapsed, killing 1,134 people and injuring about 2,500 more. While the factory collapse was a disproportionate tragedy, smaller collapses and fires are not uncommon in these factories, and death and injury is common. Workers are seen as disposable, and they work for pennies an hour, only to make garments that are more disposable.

With little to no safety precautions, little to no pay, and no regard to worker well-being, fast fashion has no problems in using workers that are cheap, expendable, and largely unable to complain due to workers' rights in these countries.

What Can We Do?

So fast fashion sucks, yeah. But what can the average person do to alleviate the stresses that fast fashion causes to the environment and human rights? Well, there are several things to do to help.

1. Thrift and DIY

The first option is to thrift and do a bit of DIY. Thrifting has garments that are vintage and distressed in a way that a factory can't really reproduce. And, depending on your thrift store, you can find good name brands and good garments which fit with current trends. And, with a bit of dedication and effort, you can make some good DIYed pieces that are on par with fast fashion garments.

This recycling not only helps workers, but it's overall better for the environment as you're using older pieces instead of buying a new piece of clothing altogether. Thrifting also allows for more experimentation, as it's cheaper than even fast fashion and the pieces can end up more versatile and open for experimentation. Always check your local thrift shops.

2. Buy From Sustainable Brands

A more expensive, yet also acceptable, option is buying from sustainable brands. Such brands include NOAH, Levi's, Patagonia, Nudie Jeans, and various other brands. These brands focus on transparency, ethical trade, and ethical production. Such brands help everyone involved in the process live and thrive upon their manufacturing process. This is in stark contrast to the shady and often sleazy efforts of fast fashion companies.

So while it may be hard to curb the habits of buying from H&M and Zara, the ethical and environmental payoffs are much better than simply buying from these brands. Always look out for more ethical, environmentally friendly brands, and thrift always!

Comments

Dhwani on June 01, 2020:

Very informative and commendable blog.

Here is my attempt on writing about Fast fashion, textile waste and how we can take steps for taking care of Mother Earth and it's people as she does for us. People need to dedicate and expand their knowledge so that we can make a difference as we are all together in this.

https://stylegreenwithdee.wordpress.com/

Ethan Reyes on January 10, 2019:

nice article:)

Anna is a sustainable fashion enthusiast with a Certificate of Sustainable Design and wrote her Master's Thesis on Sustainability Reporting.

On a recent trip to my husband’s homeland, Portugal, we embarked on a road trip to Piódão, a fairytale-like schist village tucked in the Serra do Açor Mountain, west of Portugal’s highest peak, Serra da Estrella. My mother, mother-in-law, and 10-month-old tot sat in the back seat as we made our way through the curvy mountains. The narrow road leading to Piódão didn’t have a guardrail in sight, leading my mother to shut her eyes and grip the back of the front car seat in terror. Being a New Yorker, she wasn’t ready for the Portuguese mountains’ inclines and narrow roads, and she was completely terrified.

My husband turned up the radio to some upbeat Portuguese music to lighten the mood, and a song came on, “vai ao chinês” which decries Chinese-made clothes and electronics, calling them throwaways. Each little town in Portugal has its loja chinesa, or the dollar store equivalent, where one goes for cheap, throwaway things made in China. This song led us to question whether this sentiment regarding things made in China is universal and how much truth there is to it. We disregarded the fog settling on the narrow road before us.

Does "Made in China" Always Mean Poor Quality?

I decided to do some research when I returned home to New York. Are clothes made in China all essentially poor-quality throwaways or fast fashion? As someone who’s a firm believer in the need for more sustainability in the fashion industry, should I refrain from buying any clothes made in China?

I’ve had a thing for checking out clothing labels for a few years since learning about how terrible the fashion industry can be for the environment and those people who make our clothes. So I adamantly check where each garment was made and the fabric composition. Remarkably, my vigorous inspections have revealed that both high-end and fast fashion brands seem to be made in China for the most part—is that my imagination?

The Clothing Factory of the World

It turns out it isn’t. China is indeed the world’s largest clothing exporter or what we can call the “clothing factory of the world” with clothing exports worth $288 billion in 2014. Over a third of global textile exports come from China. China's textile industry accounts for over 60% of world chemical and synthetic fiber production. It all comes down to companies wanting cheap production costs to increase their bottom line. And yes, both fast fashion brands and high-end brands are manufacturing in China.

Why Do So Many Brands Manufacture Clothes in China?

Now let’s take a look at the motives behind companies turning to China to manufacture clothes:

1. Cheap Labor

About 1.35 billion people call China home. The huge labor pool helps to produce in bulk, accommodate any seasonal industry requirement, and even cater to sudden rises in the demand schedule.

2. Low Wages

The minimum wage in a city like Shenzhen, one of the country's major garment and textile industrial bases, is about $336 per month. But those are official figures. According to Ellen Ruppel Shell, author of Cheap: The High Cost of Discount Culture:

“millions of workers, many of them migrants from remote rural areas, do not have formal employment contracts, leaving them completely vulnerable to exploitation and abuse. Without a written contract, Chinese laborers have no evidence they are employed, and employers can simply deny their existence."

3. Lack of Compliance

Chinese factories have been known for being lax on regulation related to child labor, health and safety norms, wage and hour laws, and environmental protection. According to a World Bank report in 2013, sixteen of the world’s top twenty most polluted cities are in China. Health restrictions often go unenforced, allowing companies to use hazardous chemicals when dying and processing clothing.

There’s actually a joke in China that you can tell the 'it' color of the season by looking at the color of the rivers. Farmers should not be the ones to forecast fashion color trends, but these days they get insider info from their rivers. It is estimated that in China, 70 percent of the rivers and lakes are contaminated by the 2.5 billion gallons of wastewater produced by the textile industry.

4. Currency Manipulation

China controls its exchange rate. Up until a few years ago, the country was artificially depressing the value of the yuan so that prices of Chinese exports are cheaper—it’s estimated that the currency was undervalued by 30% against the dollar in 2005. The yuan has increased in value in recent years.

The Chinese Garment Industry Today

Cheap, fast, poor quality and large quantities has been the state of things for a few decades, but things are rapidly changing in China and its people.

Rising Wages

Wages are rising. According to the China Labor Bulletin, minimum wages have almost doubled in mainland China from 2009 to 2014. At $336 per month, that’s double the rate in other Southeast Asian countries. This makes China less competitive. Emerging economies in Africa and other parts of Asia offer cheaper labor, and thus China’s market share by value in the global textile and clothing industry has fallen from 38.6% in 2015 to 35.8% in 2016, with a downward trend in major apparel importing regions including the US, EU, and Japan.

China does have something, though, that these emerging economies don’t: a huge labor pool, an enormous production capacity with impressive supply chain efficiency, state of the art factories, and a vast talent base of skilled, easily adaptable factory workers. This evolution has led China to compete against long-established, higher quality production centers like Italy, but that’s not necessarily a good thing currently for China as the perception of Chinese goods being subpar and secondary remains, but that is slowly changing.

Increasing Demand

Other Asian countries are increasingly importing clothing from China; for instance, Bangladesh’s textile imports from China by value, rose from 39% in 2005 to 47% in 2015. There are similar trends in Cambodia, Vietnam, Malaysia. The quickly expanding middle class with their desire for cheap clothes keeps "Made in China" fashion in high demand. By 2030, Asia will be the home of 3 billion middle-class people! Chinese made clothing is cost-effective when producing massive quantities.

Emphasis on Sustainability

On a positive environmental front, in October 2016 China released its national plan for implementing the United Nation’s 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, which translates each target of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) into "action plans" for China. The Chinese government is taking an active role in attempting to end poverty, protect the planet and ensure that all people enjoy peace and prosperity.

Conclusions and Takeaways

So should we flat out avoid clothes made in China? I think not. China is no longer the land of just fast, cheap and large quantities. There is a large spectrum of quality, talent, worker’s rights and environmental protection available so it is up to the brand to choose factories that produce high-quality garments and don’t compromise on the environment or ethics. It is up to us as the customer to research which brands we choose to support with our dollar. At a time when fashion has negative impacts on the environment and people who make our clothes, we should try to consume clothes more consciously by paying attention to the material our clothes are made from and who made them.

Producing in China means higher profitability for brands, whether they make fast, cheap clothes or high-quality ones such as Prada, Coach, and Mulberry. This is especially optimized for companies that make large quantities of clothes. This is actually not the case for smaller companies that produce limited quantities as there’s a high cost associated with shipping garments and also there’s the cost of traveling to visit the factory where garments are produced.

Our Duty as Consumers

China produces what companies and consumers demand, whether it be low-quality clothes that pollute our waterways where the garment workers work in horrendous conditions or high-quality clothes produced in state of the art factories where the workers are extremely happy. You and I decide what type of clothes get produced—let’s be more conscious about who made our clothes and what material is used, and let’s love our clothes!

Questions & Answers

Question: Is it safe to wear clothes made in China?

Answer: There is no straightforward answer - petroleum based fabric (i.e., polyester, acrylic) is bad for you and for the environment. These can be made in a multitude of countries. Check what fabric your clothes are made from and if you can about other factors such as the ethical standards of factories, check with the clothing company.

Comments

tinea fry on July 16, 2020:

My comment didn’t appear because I said not to buy in China

and poor quality. Interesting.......

tines fry on July 16, 2020:

Yes we should avoid it. The quality is not good .

So it’s better to buy one teeshirt 5$ more and keep it longer

and have 3 that will hand up in the garbage in 6 months.

cheryl on July 07, 2020:

This might work if a clothing website in china did not state fabric is cotton and you get a polyester fabric clothing not cotton at all

Nita on April 30, 2020:

I think it is time to give other nations an opportunity to do some manufacturing not just concentrating in one nation.

Aye Myat Thu on August 13, 2019:

Buying clothes

Christiana Green on April 26, 2019:

How do we discern what companies are safe to buy from?

Maria on January 24, 2019:

Thank you for your post. However, it's still quite difficult to get a real idea of which factories are "good" and which are "bad"... personaly I think it's better to just avoid made in china completely for the time being.

Katy has sold clothing on Mercari and Poshmark for years and does most of her thrift shopping online using eBay, Poshmark, and Mercari.

What do buyers need to know about shopping on Mercari?

My experience with buying from Mercari in 2018 is generally positive. I would recommend it to anyone looking for good deals on used clothing who is willing to put in a bit of work. I frequent Poshmark and Mercari both as a seller and a buyer. I use both platforms for different aspects of used clothing shopping.

Though my review is generally positive, there are both pros and cons to shopping with Mercari:

Pros

• Many shipping options
• Great deals
• Email alerts for search items
• Directly, privately contact seller
• Buyer protection and easy returns

Cons

• Allows very used items
• Lower end items aren't worth the shipping price
• Not all sellers communicate
• Search filters are limited

The Pros of Mercari

Let's go in depth with all the good things about using Mercari for shopping.

Shipping Options

The seller sets the shipping price on Mercari items. Why did I list this as a pro? Unlike platforms like Poshmark with a flat shipping rate, shipping on Mercari can be more affordable for cheaper items. The flexibility a seller has in setting shipping prices is passed on to the buyer. Light but cheaper items like tops or small dresses can ship for a reasonable price. Or the seller can absorb the cost in the listing price and give you free shipping.

This is important for buyers looking for single, light items. It's hard to get a good deal on those from Poshmark after their $6.49 shipping

The Deals

Items on Mercari are heavily discounted compared to retail. They claim up to 70% off, which is accurate in many cases. Read the description and review photos to understand the condition of the item.

Email Alerts

A handy tool in Mercari is email alerts. eBay offers this, too. Set up a specific search with filters, and then set it to email you with new items. There's a blue "Save Search" button that pops up on desktop and mobile for every search. This will notify you via email when new items meet that criteria. Right now, I'm looking for a new pair of black moto boots. I picked out a few styles from brands I like. So I set up an email alert with the style as the search term and my size, the brand, and the color black selected in filters. Now I only get emails from Mercari for the items I want.

Contacting the Seller

You can contact a seller on Mercari if you need more information on a listing before buying. This is useful for items like dresses and pants where the fit is important. You can ask for measurements of the item to see if it matches similar items from your closet that fit.

Buyer Protection

Mercari doesn't release your payment to the seller until you receive and approve the item. Poshmark operates the same way. Buyers carry less of the risk this way.

The Cons of Mercari

There are some drawbacks to shopping on Mercari. Here's a summary:

Allows Very Used Items

Mercari does allow sellers to list well-worn items. You can filter these out of search results by using the Condition filter.

There are more off-brand and heavily used items than Poshmark. But the listing price usually reflects the condition. So this can be a great marketplace for bargain shoppers.

Inactive Sellers

Many sellers list items and abandon them until they sell. Understandably, it's a lot of work to reply to all buyers' questions. So sometimes even when you submit a question, you don't get a response. That's annoyed me when I would have bought an item with a little more information.

Limited Search Filters

The search filters on Mercari are not very specific for clothing. There are larger categories like sandals or dresses, but it's hard to specify the style.

Also, there are only standard sizing filters. No petite, plus, or juniors options. "Medium" is lumped in with "8–10". These filters are better on Poshmark or eBay.

App Review

Pros

The Mercari app is pretty easy to use. Search results are displayed as thumbnails with prices. You can "Like" items and get notified when prices drop. This adds the item to a list of "Likes" you can reference later.

Cons

It can be difficult to navigate and tedious to start new searches. When I first started using it, it took me awhile to understand why I couldn't filter by size. The clothing category (like Tops or Shoes) has to be selected before you can select a size.

Customer Service

My experience with Mercari’s customer service was much more pleasant than similar platforms. Both Poshmark and eBay are so difficult to get in touch with! But Mercari has their phone number listed right on the site. Customer service reps quickly resolve any problems, for both buyers and sellers.

Is Mercari Safe for Buyers?

Mercari ensures that your personal and payment information is secure. Sellers will only receive your shipping address and no payment information.

As with any type of online shopping, it's easy to buy something and be disappointed with what you receive. It's up to you as the buyer to understand the item and the quality of the seller before making a purchase. Mercari will not issue you a refund as long as the item is as described.

Mercari vs. Poshmark or eBay for Used Clothes

You have other options when buying used clothes online.

• Poshmark specializes in new and used clothing, especially for women. Learn about buying on Poshmark.
• eBay has more categories outside of clothes, so that can be distracting. But it's also a much larger market with a variety of sellers.

When I have a specific item in mind, I'll search all three websites. I'm willing to use any of them if they have the best deal on what I'm looking for.

This content is accurate and true to the best of the author’s knowledge and is not meant to substitute for formal and individualized advice from a qualified professional.

© 2018 Katy Medium

Comments

BJB LEE on July 15, 2020:

Mercari is NOT what it appears to be. It is basically a forum where any random person can sell anything. Unsuspecting customers (such as myself) are under the impression that Customer service will assist you if there is an issue, but this is not the case. Each individual seller can make slightly different rule, especially regarding refund. In my case, I accidentally misread a description and ordered what I thought was an apple watch, and upon reviewing the order realized that it was an apple watch BAND! I contacted the seller to cancel it less than 1 hour after placing the order, and the only answer I received, was “too bad” you should read better, that is not my policy to refund. Take it with customer service. Customer service did not do anything, except telling me to resale the item!!! Next, if you try to write a review BEFORE you receive the item (to “complain” about customer service by the seller), you then FORFAIT your right to a refund!!! I have bought from Etsy, Ebay, Amazon and many other online retailers… and THIS IS BY FAR THE WORST SERVICE I EVER GOT. The only time the seller reached out unsollicited, was to complain about my review !!! Keep your money or spend it elsewhere, this is a “gig economy” type business that is perfect (IN MY OPINION)for questionable individuals to run borderline scams. STAY AWAY

Benjamin Aumenta on May 17, 2020:

Just go to The California.(San Francisco) Better Business Bureau and after reading the reviews and you go ahead and do business with this site you will deserve all the bad things that will happen to you.

I was swindled and scammed. Customer Service did nothing but give me a run around for weeks and weeks.

Counterfeit items, misrepresented items. etc., etc...........

It seems that all of the rotten sellers that were thrown off of Ebay and other like sites are scamming people on this site.

STAY AWAY! NOT WORTH THE AGGRAVATION THAT YOU WILL ENCOUNTER!

Luella Krah;;l on March 06, 2020:

Bad experience with Mercari. Ordered a product, order was confirmed and then got a requiest to cancel it. Very disappointed in the process.

Will not return! A Scam.

Cris2487 on October 27, 2019:

Just purchased boots that were listed as women’s and turns out they’re men’s.I opened a return for item not as described and was immediately denied the return.I was told by the rep the listing was accurate,how are men’s boots sold as women’s boots an accurate description?I will never buy from Mercari again absolutely no buyer protection.

Neisha on July 23, 2019:

Scammed 4times in 1 week with iwatches. Was charged three times. The sellers were unresponsive after purchase and then refunded my money back days later. The 4th time purchased a watch from seller AnnaLWebb it shows no scratches in the picture or description. The watch came to me severely scratched up on the apple watch face and Rebecca is supposed to be the support crew. Did nothing! My bank said they will deal with each name of deceitful people and horrible customer service.from seller AnnaLWebb (Anna L. Webb) from Oklahoma City and Danielkok from Florida, Lauren Zapetalfit from Tennesse, bluefacefrank and Rebecca from customer support.

sandradanza9@gmail.com on July 11, 2019:

have bought some nice items on Mercari, But no more clothing, was ripped off by a seller, seller sent me a pair of nike joggers with PATCH sewn into seat of pants, should of been easy to work with customer service, pic i sent was as clear as a pic can be, but they wanted more and more photos, to were I just couldnt take anymore abuse. All i could do was give seller poor score, Mercari does not protect buyers!

susanahh@gmail.com on June 18, 2019:

I tried to purchase Maclaren Twin stroller on Mercari from user "wally27". I negotiated the price and the seller confirmed the purchase. The seller shipped my order but canceled it within one day because "barcode does not scan". The seller also blocked my account so I cannot buy or message him. But the stroller was still available for purchase. So I used my husband account to try to buy it, this time for full price. The seller canceled the second order within few minutes and blocked my other account too. I hope the seller will change his mind and sell me the item otherwise I am going to request the Mercari to cancel "wally27" account due to not complying to web site policy. Actually, I am already talking to Mercari to cancel the "wally27" account and any other accounts associated with this person*home address.

Michael on March 28, 2019:

Theives! Stay away! Ripoff! Scumbucket customer service!

Katy has sold clothing on Mercari and Poshmark for years and does most of her thrift shopping online using eBay, Poshmark, and Mercari.

Most of us are fairly careful when shopping for clothes online—we examine photos closely, read the fine print, and only use "legit" sites. That's why it can be hard to trust sites like Poshmark without having used them firsthand. But here's the thing—you can get great deals on Poshmark without having to worry about poor quality items or risking your personal information. Even if you haven't shopped online for used clothing before, you can learn how to use Poshmark safely. Read on to find out how to shop on Posh with total confidence.

What Is Poshmark?

First off, what exactly is Poshmark? Poshmark is a well-established website for buying and selling used clothes, and despite being a relatively new player in the online shopping scene, it's perfectly legitimate. The site is similar to eBay and Mercari, but it only allows listings for clothes, accessories, and makeup. Anyone can join the site to be a buyer or a seller. Read on to learn more about how to buy clothes on Poshmark and how to determine whether the items you are considering purchasing are legitimate.

Is Poshmark Legit?

Let's address a common concern: Is Poshmark legit? Yes, Poshmark is a reputable website. Buyers purchase actual clothes and sellers receive actual payouts. But while the site itself is perfectly legitimate, there is no guarantee that the users buying and selling on it are legitimate. That's why the website has protections in place for both parties:

• Buyers can accept or return an item once they receive it. A buyer's payment isn't released to the seller until they receive the item and approve the purchase.
• Sellers' shipments are protected if they ship using the site's pre-paid, pre-addressed shipping labels.

How Safe Is Poshmark for Buyers?

When buying used clothing online, the marketplace you choose matters a lot when it comes to keeping your finances and identity safe. For a successful online buying experience with Poshmark, there are three things you'll want to keep in mind: your money, your privacy, and your purchase.

Protecting Your Money

It's perfectly safe to give your payment information to the site because sellers never see it. Your payments are processed by Poshmark. Poshmark then pays your seller directly once you have confirmed that you've received your item and are satisfied.

While Poshmark's digital marketplace is safe, secure, and private, there is always some risk involved in buying online. Some sellers might misrepresent an item or hide its flaws. If this happens to you, take pictures of the item immediately, then open a dispute with the site as soon as you can. You are protected by Poshmark if the item you receive is not "as described."

Protecting Your Privacy and Identity

When setting up your account, you can choose a username that doesn't match your real name and can't be traced to you. You can add as much or as little information as you want to your profile page. Your mailing address, however, will need to be shared with sellers after you buy an item from them so they can ship it to you. This is not unique to Poshmark—sellers are given buyers' addresses on eBay and Mercari as well. If you really do not want to share your home address, you may consider setting up a P.O. box at your local post office or having items shipped to your workplace.

Making a Good Purchase

When shopping online, it's important to double-check that what you are buying is what you actually want. It's easy to fall for pretty pictures only to realize later that an item you purchased doesn't fit properly or falls apart quickly. This isn't Poshmark's fault, nor is it the seller's (so long as they properly described the item). So as a buyer, it is worth spending some time to carefully consider the sizing, materials, brand, and pricing of anything you are considering purchasing.

• Check the sizing. Women's clothing sizes vary drastically from brand to brand, so don't be afraid to ask the seller for exact measurements. Measure a similar item you have that fits well and be on the lookout for items with those dimensions. Read the description completely and ask for more photos if you don't think the flaws are captured well enough.
• Check the brand and materials. Clothes are made from a variety of materials, and some are more durable than others. Look at the material and the brand to get an idea of the quality of an item. Just because a used skirt is priced at $50 doesn't mean it's actually worth that much.

For more information on buying clothes from Poshmark, read about how Poshmark works for buyers.

Are There Fake Items on Poshmark?

Listing fakes or knock-offs is against Poshmark's policy. As with any marketplace, however, a small number of sellers try to get away with it. So how can you tell if a listing is real? Fakes are mostly a concern with items from luxury brands, as these can gross more profit. So how can you tell if an item really is Gucci or Chanel or if it's just a knock-off?

How to Spot Fakes and Knock-Offs on Posh

• Avoid falling for a fake by looking for clear pictures that include brand logos as well as tags and boxes when available.
• Make sure you're buying from a reputable seller. You can get an idea of a seller's history by viewing their "about" page. You can see how many sales they've made and whether their buyers have left any notes. If a seller has a good rating and has made plenty of sales, it is unlikely that the items they have listed are fakes.

Poshmark Safety for Sellers

Poshmark has a well-established marketplace that is very friendly to sellers. Read my review of selling on Poshmark here for a full run-down. Before you get into selling seriously, there are a couple of important things to know about seller safety:

Getting Payment

The site's seller fees are very clear, so you'll know how much money you'll receive before a buyer makes a purchase. The money you make in sales is available as soon as the buyer accepts the item. In case the buyer fails to accept the item, the money is automatically released to you after four days.

Returns

This is an area where even sellers with great intentions can get burned. A buyer may open a claim on a sale if they believe the item they received is not "as described." Unfortunately, Poshmark is known to side with the buyer on returns more often than not. To protect yourself from these claims, make sure you thoroughly describe every item you list and take clear pictures of any damage.

This content is accurate and true to the best of the author’s knowledge and is not meant to substitute for formal and individualized advice from a qualified professional.

© 2018 Katy Medium

Comments

Maureen Price on April 21, 2020:

I purchased an item that was falsely advertised - a pair of jeans that were being sold as "very stretchy", when in fact they had no stretch in them at all. I question whether they were actually an authentic pair of designer jeans as all the jeans I have come across from this particular brand have always been a good quality and stretchy material, which was nothing like the pair I was sent. These particular jeans retail for $500 and I can assure you that the quality of the material in the jeans I was sent was nowhere near the quality of a pair of jeans that would be worth $500. I sent a request to Poshmark to return the item as their return policy specifically mentions that "A buyer may open a case with us if they don't receive their item or the item they receive is not as described within the listing." I felt that I had definitely been mislead by the seller's ad saying that the jeans were very stretchy. The seller repsonded and actually admitted that the fabric, in fact, didn't contain much stretch but she had added the description that they were 'very stretchy' because that is how the designer brand described this particular item on their website. I was then told by Poshmark that they wouldn't accept my dispute because I should have asked the seller more specific questions about the fabric before making my purchase. If the seller is describing the product as 'very stretchy' then I would assume if I asked her if the product was 'very stretchy' then she would have to say yes as that is how she described them. I will never purchase anything from Poshmark again as I believe they are allowing false advertising and possibly fake products to be sold on their site. If it seems to good to be true, it usually is!! More like very sketchy!!

R Couturier on March 28, 2020:

POSHMARK IS BAD NEWS! They offer a refund GUARANTEE which is fake. They do not back a cheated buyer - ever.

RUN!

Mellen on March 04, 2020:

Been shopping on the site for a couple of years and as a buyer I’m extremely frustrated with this company. So many times I purchase an item and never receive it. There is no way to contact anyone in person so you just go back and forth with emails, it’s just plain bad business. Monitor your sellers Poshmark make sure they have the items they are listing, and if not have it removed immediately I’m deleting my account

SC on March 01, 2020:

There are scammers on Poshmark and the company does not do enough to weed them out. I sold a new pair of shoes, with tags and in box. The buyer claimed it was counterfeit. I produced original receipt and Poshmark ruled in favor of the buyer because Amazon is a third party retailer and they couldn't authenticate the shoes. I wasn't selling a high end brand and wasn't due to make a fortune off of the sale. I'm apparently getting the product back from the buyer but that's just creepy. Will be deleting my account.

Jay. on January 13, 2020:

My wife ordered me a rockawear wallet and got scammd,no wallet no money back.

Gen11 on January 06, 2020:

I’ve purchased off poshmark & after they know the seller was selling fake replicas and not just 1 BUT 3 items I purchased and ALL were fake!!! Yet the seller was back at it selling Chanel again!!!! They need to do better with their cyber security & in house networks to weed this out! They claim they are anti fraud & anti trademark etc But they Do not protect the consumer as they Expect the consumer to know what’s real or fake! I feel bad for those who have no idea and think they are just getting a good deal! I stopped buying Chanel and high end items I don’t trust poshmark! They need to do a better job At getting rid of the sellers that are selling replicas! But then again they make a percentage off that too so what do they care I still see the same sellers selling their fake replicas over and over again! I think this is something that should get reported!

Rob on December 24, 2019:

Poshmark is a fraudulent organization; they take your money on behalf of sellers that don’t send you what you bought and when you try and contact Poshmark you cannot speak to anyone and only receive canned unhelpful emails while you are ultimately getting ripped off - never buy anything through Poshmark!!!!

Valentina on December 18, 2019:

I'm done with Poshmark. There is no one to turn to if the person who sold you the item does not actually send it to you! I have been waiting a long time for a bag I purchased, and all I can do is e-mail them, because they don't have a phone number! I wish I had never gone on this site. Never again.

Vicky on October 24, 2019:

I'm done with Poshmark. Too many times I have been disappointed in a purchase. Recently bought what was suppose to a leather jacket that turned out to be fake.I took a picture of the tag that told fabric content. Seller offers me only partial refund if I return it. I end up paying for shipping twice and her fees from Poshmark are deducted from the return.

Joyce on September 28, 2019:

I have sold 2 items on Poshmark. Both were accepted. I asked for direct deposit the money should be in my acct in 3 business days. It is going on 6 business days and Poshmark is making excuses blaming their bank partner. They received the full amount of my items but they can’t pay me. Very worrisome

Katy Medium (author) from Denver, CO on September 27, 2019:

Hi Mark, for what I can see PoshInParis sells new shoes? A bit different from Poshmark, but it might be worth a look. From many posts around the internet it seems like people are saying it's a scam.

Mark on September 27, 2019:

I think poshinparis.com is better

Anthony Victor on September 23, 2019:

Please don’t buy at Poshmark!!! If you sell stuff you are ok, but in the other side you buy and is impossible to return the item they asked you to open a return claim but you will loose like I did!! I hate Poshmark never ever will buy again and I’m just trying to save as many people I can!!!

Ruth Holmes on September 11, 2019:

Purchased item not received. Got an apology from Poshmark.

I'm mad as hell. Stupid me for trusting.

Don Busiek on September 04, 2019:

Poshmark is terrible as they have promised to get back to me re: my purchase,but have not done so.

Don

Melissa on August 15, 2019:

I've bought a cute tinkerbell purse for ten dollars.......for a nine year old. The seller argued with me because of a two star rating. I thought that was in confidence-- in which, an arguement ensued. The seller's pictures did NO justice. Claims her hand was in one of those pics.....if it i did see any recognition of a limb, i would not have bought it. She claims this is the only way of making an income---- someone needs to reevaluate the difference between telling the truth and "trying not to lie". This experience was a joke!

LD on July 27, 2019:

Scam and fraud!

Lily on July 24, 2019:

Poshmark protects the seller and NOT the buyer. I provided pictures to prove that the item I received was not at all like the item in the picture that I purchased. The Seller did not care, and said leave it up to Poshmark, who refused the ability to return and gave no further explanation and no ability to contest further. I hope poshmark goes bankrupt= they are crooks with no customer service!

Liz on July 22, 2019:

They are usually really good .. I love this app sign up with Disneydreamer25 to get 10 off your first purchase

imelda on June 18, 2019:

I agree I was once a victim of valentino bag authentic thru elian but when the bag arrived I notify them on a wednesday for the 3 days its a monday and they let go , but I want to returrn the said bag cause its a fake, you can see the handle its made of and the leather they use is a synthetic... and im so disappointed how poshmark handle this things, they need to see the product to thats why I want to return in order for them to see how the authenticity of a certain item is real....

Halloween Jet on May 22, 2019:

@ Madeline Kireta, delete the PayPal info from your Poshmark account.

Halloween Jet on May 22, 2019:

@Arlea Davis keep emailing & make sure to attach the email where they approved the return. They’re usually very good, but people abuse any system (not saying you) on both ends (buyer & seller).

Madeline Kireta on May 22, 2019:

I just tried to make a purchase with Poshmark thru Paypal. The transaction would never complete loading. I got tired of waiting and X'd out the transaction. Since they have my info with PayPal I am concerned.

Arlea Davis on May 08, 2019:

Poshmark for buyers is a ripoff. I recently purchased a pair of Gucci sunglasses. I did not like them. Poshmark okayed for me to return them. I returned the sunglasses. I gave them the Return mail information and they still paid the seller. I emailed and called them but no response. I want my money back.

Halloween Jet on April 28, 2019:

@Elina - it is in Poshmark FAQs that counterfeits are strictly forbidden. When I see them (and know for sure as I don’t know all luxury brands inside out) I report. More people need to report these things so the scammers get banned. Tbh, I don’t understand how places like Goodwill or Salvation Army get away with selling them (around me at really high prices no less) because it’s illegal in my state. I don’t like seeing things go into landfills so perhaps they could donate to a shelter. At least they’ll get used without selling counterfeits. Don’t bother trying to reason either, I explained why a pair of counterfeit Loubboutins were fake (asking $300?) and they didn’t care, that them right back in the display case, same price. Probably think you’re trying to get them cheaper, but it was so obvious, heel heights weren’t even the same! I wish there was some recourse when it comes to thrift/ charity shops.

Katy Medium (author) from Denver, CO on April 26, 2019:

Hi Mich, I'm sorry you had a bad experience with that seller and Poshmark. I'm surprised you're not getting a refund if it was a mistake.

Mich on April 25, 2019:

Do not use Poshmark My granddaughter picked out some shoes and they processed the purchase wrong and are blaming me. Their computer system has glitches. When I email them, they totally lie about the transaction- and blame me or the seller. They have lied to me more than any other website ever. They lie. Do not use.

Pat L Illinois on April 18, 2019:

DONT USE POSHMARK...they dont take care of customers..i received an order that i didn't place..they will not address this problem...someone used my account and ordered 3 items on my account!!!BEWARE!!!!

CO Deb on April 16, 2019:

If you're a buyer beware. The sellers are allowed to get as much money as they possibly can out of you. so don't be surprised if you pay three times as much for an item as its value. The seller can enhance the description quite alot and and Poshmark will side with them. Buyer beware.

Jenny on April 14, 2019:

Has anyone had problems buying David

Yurman? I just want to make sure paying that kind money I would be getting what I pay for!

Carmen Cruz on March 23, 2019:

How can I be sure to receive the items I buy?

Katy Medium (author) from Denver, CO on March 11, 2019:

Hi Elizabeth,

Poshmark handles the payments (buyers can use, credit card or PayPal) and as a seller you get the payments via PayPal.

Elizabeth Hinds on March 11, 2019:

Can I use PayPal when selling?

bjs on March 02, 2019:

this website committed fraud with my Bank and gave them erroneous information in order to block a refund, giving the bank the amount of a different item I had been refunded through Poshmark previously, in order to block a valid refund that I had requested. The Bank Rep said, I can see there are two different transactions, and the amounts which are similar are different, and the dates of the transactions are different, and is now investigating the scam.

Katy Medium (author) from Denver, CO on February 25, 2019:

Hi Elina, thanks for your comment! You're right that anyone can sell fakes on Poshmark. It's up to buyers to be careful!

Elina on February 25, 2019:

Poshmark is allowed to sell FAKE items... especially Louis Vuitton, Channel and other luxury brands... They “ambassadors” selling fakes like no tomorrow... All of them including Poshmark must be prosecuted.

Rachel M. Johnson is a lover of all things pop culture. She's been writing about music and entertainment online for years.

Phoebe Halliwell is not afraid to take chances when it comes to her wardrobe, and her wide variety of clothing styles is proof of that. Whether she's going for sweet and sophisticated, breezy and bohemian, or edgy and femme-fatale, the character has an ever-changing wardrobe. Though she wore some questionable ensembles from time to time (hey, it was the '90s), there's no denying the Charmed One had the fashion bug. Let's take a look at some of her most memorable and stylish outfits.

10. Simple Tank and Kimono

It's often rare to see Phoebe wearing more basic pieces of clothing, but there's no denying how beautiful she looks in a simple pair of dark jeans, tank top, and kimono. Her effortlessness makes her look even more stunning, and the turquoise-colored tank compliments her skin tone wonderfully. She knew how to rock a t-shirt and jeans.

9. Floral Corset and Billowy Sleeves

There's definitely a lot going on with this outfit, but somehow Phoebe pulls it off! The floral and lace corset paired with the white billowy sleeves somehow comes together, and Phoebe's long curly hair pairs nicely with the ensemble. It's clearly a unique outfit that few could pull off, but Phoebe knows how to wear it well!

8. Edgy Red Crop Top and Skirt

There must be something about Phoebe embracing her inner dark side that elevates her wardrobe. Donning this all-red skirt and crop-top pairing, Phoebe looked every bit like the queen of The Underworld. I am also a huge fan of her feathered/layered shorter hairstyle, which framed her face beautifully. She truly embraced her dark side, and her outfits showed it.

7. Casual Denim Jacket

There's just something about denim that really makes Phoebe pop! She looks trendy and casual wearing a long sleeve periwinkle crop-top and denim jacket, paired with a simple pair of black jeans. This phase of Phoebe's fashion was one of my favorites; she often went for bohemian-style clothing choices that made her look effortlessly chic.

6. Feminine and Pink

With the soft, feminine pink blouse and light, printed bottoms, Phoebe looks sophisticated and classy. It's nice to see her dress a little more dainty, and the outfit itself is airy and refreshing in contrast to her more daring and sexy ensembles. It just goes to show Phoebe can truly rock any style!

5. Denim Vest and Lace Top

This is definitely an outfit I could see people wearing today. The denim vest paired with the white lace tube top and floral skirt look great on Phoebe, and with her hair pulled back and bangs framing her face, she looks fresh and effortlessly cool.

4. All-Black Feathered Dress

This all-black ensemble makes Phoebe look sophisticated with just the right amount of edge. The sexy neckline and cinched waist shows off her stunning figure, and her short layered hair and minimalist make-up add a classy and vintage feel to the outfit.

3. Bohemian Blue Dress

Phoebe rocked this bright blue strapless dress, which she paired with wedges and a simple necklace and bangles. The bohemian vibe of the outfit paired with her braided hair makes her look absolutely glowing. Her clean make-up compliments her tan skin, and the color of the dress truly makes her stand out.

2. Classically Elegant Wedding Gown

Phoebe looked absolutely stunning in her wedding gown when she was marrying Cole. The embroidered off-the-shoulder gown and veil complimented her figure; paired with her shorter, fringed hair, Phoebe was truly a blushing bride. The vintage and elegant dress was a beautiful look on the character, especially for her wedding day.

1. 1920s Flapper Ensemble

There is no denying how beautiful Phoebe looked in her 1920s flapper-inspired look. The red feathers and pin curls mixed with her deep crimson lips definitely created a showstopper. This was one of her fiercest looks, and it truly looked like she stepped right out of the 1920s. Even though she was fighting her dark side throughout the episode, she looked gorgeous doing it!

Which Was Your Favorite?

Which Phoebe look was your favorite? Did I forget one? Let me know in the comments below!

Questions & Answers

Question: What made you choose these outfits?

Answer: I chose these outfits because I am a massive Phoebe fan and watching her style evolution on the show was one of my favorite parts. I love how she takes risks with fashion and I chose the outfits that stuck out the most to me.

Comments

Rachel M Johnson (author) on December 15, 2018:

Hi Nashoi, I just couldn’t get into the new Charmed, I was pretty peeved it didn’t involve any of the original cast members. But I agree, I absolutely love Phoebe’s style transformation! She has so many great looks and it made her character even more fun!

Nashoi on December 14, 2018:

I just started watching the new charmed series because i was feeling nostalgic but i couldn’t help to compare, phoebe realy had her way with fashion or maybe she worked with great stylist because that’s all i was thinking about, phoebe’s clothes and her constant radical changes that didn’t affect the show negatively but gave it more character. I miss that

Rachel M Johnson (author) on December 05, 2018:

Hi Sharon, I completely agree! I think many of her outfits would fit right in today! I’ll have to look into what companies styled her!

Sharon19.nickelback@gmail.com on December 05, 2018:

What companies were her outfits available at? They would still look nice today. Thanks you.

Sharon19.nickelback@gmail.com on December 05, 2018:

Phoebe had had a lot of pretty clothes. I'm looking for the black and blue top with bows on the arms in the episode where the Avatar appeared.

Rachel M Johnson (author) on November 10, 2018:

Hi Dan, are you talking about one of her ouftits from that episode? I think I might know which one you mean!

DanManBMX on November 10, 2018:

What about the Dishwalla episode?

May is a passionate online shopper, constantly looking for new sites offering bargains to offset the declining Australian dollar.

What Is the Box of Style?

I found out about Rachel Zoe's Box of Style though the Covet Fashion game and was immediately intrigued. A box of over $400 worth of fashion items delivered to your door for only $99? It seemed too good to be true. With a special coupon offer to get an extra $25 off (to offset the $15 cost of shipping it to Australia), I thought it was worth giving it a go.

I would like to take the opportunity here to state unequivocally that I am not in any way affiliated with Box of Style, as the rave review which follows may cause you to think otherwise.

What's in It?

Box of Style is a collection of items curated by Rachel Zoe each season (4 times a year). There are some small choices, such as the size of a belt or the colour of a wrap. This is also a small selection of other heavily discounted items that you can add to your box as well.

How Does It Work?

Once you subscribe, the current season's box will be delivered to you. Following that, you will receive a new box each season with fashion and beauty items relevant to the season.

Box of Style offers two subscription types—annual or seasonal.

• I went with seasonal, which gives me the option of cancelling any time before 15th of the month prior to the shipment of the next box.
• An annual subscription means that you will have to wait until you have received all four boxes before you can cancel. The upside of the annual subscription is a small saving—they're currently offering the annual subscription for $349.

Is It Worth It?

I would have to give a resounding YES!

There's nothing quite like the anticipation of opening up a box of goods that I probably would never have gone out and bought myself. It's almost like having a stylist choose items for you—in fact, I guess that's exactly what it is!

These are items that on their own I probably would look at and think they were a little pricey. But when they're grouped together into such a well-priced package, it seems fun rather than extravagant.

To be honest, I wasn't expecting to love every item, but for $99, I thought I could afford to give a couple of things away. As it turned out, each item is lovely, and I'll be keeping 'em all!

Example Box Contents

This is what came in the Summer 2018 box, all for the cost of $99 (USD).

St Tropez Tote by Rachel Zoe for Box of Style

This synthetic black and white tote is light, durable and stylish. Perfect to pack enough for a day at the beach, I think it will survive being packed in my suitcase for Hawaii.

For Love and Lemons Fringe Hoop Earrings

I don't wear a lot of big earrings, but these are big enough to be interesting yet soft enough to not overwhelm a petite face. They'll go with everything in my summer wardrobe!

They currently retail for $63.

Bindaya St Barth's Cover Up

I was probably most nervous about this item, as I'm a rather small person and my response to anything "One-Size-Fits-All" is usually 'Yeah, right'. But I have to say I was pleasantly surprised. It's very wide, but the fabric is so lovely and soft it hangs beautifully without looking bulky. It's also short enough to throw over bathers to walk down the street and is much less transparent than I thought.

There is one dilemma with this cover-up. I'm really pale—almost as white as this cover-up and usually I fake tan when I'm on holiday. But if I fake tan and wear this cover-up, it's probably going to discolour the fabric a bit. I'll have to think about that one. For anyone with even a little bit of colour, this cover-up is a great addition.

It currently retails for $115.

Kate Somerville ExfoliKate Glow Moisturiser

I love Kate Somerville products. I thought this moisturiser may turn out to be a travel size, but it's not. It's a full size moisturiser that retails here in Australia for $95, so this box is looking like better and better value!

Skova Travel Towel

Okay, this towel is BIG. Perfect for a picnic on the beach. It has a gorgeous print—there was a choice of colours but by the time I ordered mine, there was only this left but I love it. The great thing about this towel is that even though it's large, it's not bulky. Light and easy to fold up and throw in your tote bag.

It currently retails for $53.

Fall 2018 Box of Style

The Fall 2018 Box of Style also had pretty amazing-looking contents:

• a lovely black or burgundy Capelet (like a big open cardi)
• a wrap belt
• a full-size bottle of Caudalie Vinoperfect Radiance Serum
• an Ettika 18k gold tassel necklace
• a Beauty Pie mascara

This content is accurate and true to the best of the author’s knowledge and is not meant to substitute for formal and individualized advice from a qualified professional.

Susan is an internet marketing professional who regularly writes on Medium and is the author of two SEO books on Amazon.

Are You a Beauty Blogger?

If you have a beauty blog or Instagram page and an active number of followers who regularly like your posts or share them online, then you’re definitely going to have a chance of getting free products from companies to review. Companies love to send free makeup to bloggers or Instagrammers, because their followers are actively purchasing any products that influencers advertise on their blog.

In this guide, you're going to learn:

• What beauty companies look for in a blog.
• How to create compelling reviews that'll impress beauty companies.
• How to best contact a beauty company for PR packages.
• What to do to maintain a relationship with the company.

So by the end of this guide, you’re going to have a great understanding of how to get free samples and products from beauty companies, as well as the follow-up process and the thank-you email you should send after in order to develop a working relationship with the company.

Companies love to develop working relationships with influencers, because if your posts help them sell more products, then it’s a win-win for everyone. I’m also going to provide a variety of extra tips to help you get ahead and stand out from other bloggers.

You ready to begin? I know I am!

1. Evaluate Your Blog/Instagram Page

Before you contact any companies, you need to make sure that your blog or Instagram page has a strong online presence and an active number of followers, as well as high quality content.

If your blog lacks in content, companies mightn’t be satisfied with the quality of the reviews you provide, or it shows that you don’t have an active following on your blog as of yet, and that your blog is still developing and in its beginning phase.

Here are some things to make sure:

Does Your Blog Have at Least Thirty Blog Posts?

The more content your blog has, the more people will eventually subscribe to your blog; that’s just the laws of the web coming into play right there. Companies will want a link to your blog, and you can be sure they’ll be actively checking to see if you post regularly.

Some people wonder how often they should post, and my greatest advice is that you should post at least once every three weeks if your review is a “roundup” style piece (where you review more than three makeup items, for example) and at least once every two weeks if your posts are shorter in length.

Now of course, you should tailor your publishing schedule to your own life and day-to-day living. Of course, if you find little time to write during the week, then tailor your publishing schedule according to that, so you can publish one blog post a month if you like.

Is Your Publishing Schedule Consistent?

The key is to remain consistent. Whether you publish a blog post every few days, every week, or every month, you need to remain consistent with your publishing schedule. Companies like to see that you’re dedicated to building a following and to becoming an influencer.

2. Make Sure Your Reviews Are Engaging

If your makeup reviews are engaging, contain plenty of photos, before and after photos, even videos or Instagram clips, then that shows you’re producing relevant, high-quality content and that you’re showcasing the companies’ products in the best manner possible.

Add Plenty of Close-Up Shots

You can stand out by adding captions to your products’ photos, polls in your blog posts, and a variety of other multimedia content.

Make Sure to Highlight Key Quotes

Highlight key parts of your review and make those stand out also in the form of blog-quotes, etc., These provide the TL;DR (or the short summary) of what you thought of the makeup or cosmetics in general.

You can also highlight your thoughts in the form of blog graphics.

A tool I particularly like is Canva. It helps you design blog graphics, social media graphics, and more, all with a few simple clicks. All the blog graphics I create for my articles are made using Canva, and they help add visual stimuli to my blog posts, and I can also create cute annotated diagrams and more. Add a few of these graphics to your blog posts, and companies will definitely know you’re an influencer to reach out to!

Create Title Graphics

A title graphic or thumbnail graphic is the photo you see on social media before you click on the link to the beauty review; if you're blogging on WordPress, this is equivalent to the "Featured Image" you include in your blog posts.

You can make your blog look stunning with reviews that includes some of these title graphics. You'll see an example above, which was made with Canva, a free tool online graphic tool.

3. Add Light Filters to Your Images

While you should be as honest as possible with your photography (and not overly saturate your images, for example), you can still add some gentle filter effects to your images in case your smartphone's photography quality isn't depicting the makeup in the way that you want.

There are plenty of online tools out there to add filter effects, including Flashback, a retro image filtering tool (great if you want to show vintage, glamourous pics of you with the company's makeup on).

4. Contact The Company

Next, it’s time to contact the company. You need to send them an email detailing:

What Your Blog Is All About

Provide them with a general overview on what your blog is about and the kind of posts you create or makeup you like to write about. Do you provide makeup tutorials? Video reviews? Text reviews? If you’re blog posts are very in-depth and contain a lot of imagery, let them know about that. Sell your blog to them, so that they know that you’re an influencer to work with.

Also, give them some general statistics on how many readers your blog has or how many followers your Instagram page has. Once they get a general idea, they can evaluate whether your blog will be one to work with in the future.

Provide some links to your best reviews, too, so that they can quickly see what your blogging skill and reviewing skill is like. To compile some of your latest social media content and blog posts, you can use tools such as Carrd or Linktree, which allow you to setup a quick online page which links to your blog, Instagram and other online profiles you have. There are several alternatives, and I've written an article on some alternatives to Linktree. By creating a quick one-page website, you're establishing an online presence beyond social media and makeup companies love to see that!

How Often You Publish

Let them know that you publish consistently, and how long you’ve been writing for, so that they know you’re a competitive and dedicated blogger.

Any Personal Experience You Have With Their Products

If you’re a great fan of their products, then you should let them know about that! I wrote a whole article detailing exactly how to write to companies for free products in exchange for some positive, true words about their products, and you can do the same here, only you’re giving them a flavour of what your reviewing skill is like.

If you’ve never used any of their products before, then I wouldn’t recommend you follow this part, since you need to stay truthful to your words. However, if you heard about them from a friend and are curious to try their products and potentially review them, then you can mention that here.

What Products You’d Like to Review

This is the fun part of the email or letter! Here, you get to detail exactly what you’d like to review. Now this completely depends on the company, but some companies only want to send out the products that they would like to get reviewed, so they mightn’t send the exact product you’d like to review. Try and keep your email open-ended, so that if they don’t want to send that lipstick or that eyeshadow, that they can send you whatever they would like reviewed, and that you’d love to review it, etc.,

Here, it would be a good place to mention what your turn-around times are like. If you’re going to write the review within two weeks of receiving the product, that would be a fantastic bonus, since it shows dedication.

A Link to Your Blog/Instagram Page/Linktree

Somewhere in the email, you need to place a clear link to your blog or Instagram page. Preferably, introduce it at the beginning somewhere by hyperlinking your blog’s name as you introduce it in the beginning, and then you can add a link to your blog or Instagram page at the footer of your email, just after your salutation and sign off. This is usually the first place company representatives go to look for a link to your blog. If you have a Linktree (or online website/one-page site) account, make sure to include that also, as it'll help give makeup companies a better feel for your latest blog posts and social media content.

5. Follow Up With a Thank-You Email

Once you are sent makeup, and have reviewed it, it’s absolutely crucial that you send a link of your review or Instagram post to the company and make sure to thank them for sending you products to review also. By contacting them again, you're helping to establish a working relationship with this company and they may send you products in the future too!

They’ll be able to read your review, even comment on it, or say thanks, and of course, this means you’ll develop a working relationship with the company. In the future, they might think of you and send you more products to review. Of course, if they’re particularly impressed by your review, they could potentially add you to their influencers list, so that whenever they create new products, they might ask you to review them.

Be courteous and thankful in your email, make the link to your review clear and make sure it’s easily found, and you’ll be well on your way to developing a working relationship with the company.

Top Tips

Thanks for Reading!

If you have any questions, make sure to contact me by emailing me (you'll see my email above) or comment down below. Thanks for reading!

Community Poll

This content is accurate and true to the best of the author’s knowledge and is not meant to substitute for formal and individualized advice from a qualified professional.

Comments

Arwa Tanveer on July 27, 2020:

I have a youtube. Channel for eyeshades i growing it up and i love makeup so much and i would love to receive pr packages Thank you ❤️

Uroosa ali on June 24, 2020:

I am wakeup lover and i have a YouTube channel

Zaara khan on June 16, 2020:

I have a beauty channel on YouTube

www.youtube.com/gorgeous zaara khan

Rebecca bentley on June 12, 2020:

I have a youtube channel and a instagram to name for both of them is rebecca bentley.

Alex Hales on February 19, 2020:

In spite of staying set up like solidified, in an hour I get those white spots around my nose where the Custom foundation boxes. into and stuck in the pores excessively.

http://bit.ly/2u8GMBn

Yasmin on January 22, 2020:

I took all the information on board. As im just starting out.Im a fully qualified beautician.With an eye for makeup! whether it be big and bold or more natural elegant.Im artistic with good skills , also im very honest when it comes to reviewing.. which is most important i would be most grateful for some pr packages to review either makeup/ skin products /hair products.

nmanton on January 09, 2020:

I thoroughly enjoyed the advice and tips. I have recently started doing lives on facebook and intend to start doing lives on IG. I would greatly appreciate the opportunity to be considered for a PR list surrounding the latest in make-up and skin care!! Thank you so much for your time and look forward to hearing from you soon!!

brenda0331 on December 17, 2019:

Thank your for your help I am starting my Instagram account and love all your recommendations. I would love to start receiving PR thank you again.

saniya on December 02, 2019:

Hello

im saniya here looking for some PR Packages to start a beauty blog it wll be gald for me if you help me with gttng the cosmatic products to start up my blog

thank u

Molebogeng Kgathole on November 25, 2019:

I am a Beauty,Cosmetics and Personal Care Content Creator on Instagram and i would love to get products so that i can review them on my Instagram please put me in your PR list

Anaya dupas on November 24, 2019:

I am a YouTuber and I have a a beauty channel

Morenol on November 18, 2019:

Great information I would love to be added to you PR list

Sarah okodede from Germany on September 25, 2019:

am a youtuber and Instagram marketing and I also make a product review on my YouTube channel! Product like Makeup skincare and hair! I will be glad if I can get a PR package to review

McKenzie Wheeler on July 29, 2019:

do u get pr from company's

Peggy Duran on May 29, 2019:

This information was so helpful would love to be on pr list

corina on March 26, 2019:

Im so thankful i ran into this detailed information i was at a freeze because i was unsure where to go next or better yet where to even start. But i think i know what i have to do now, i just have to go at it and start posting more instagram videos and youtube videos. Thanks again!

Samantha on February 23, 2019:

Amazingly knowledgeable information!!

You wrighting beautifully

YOLANDA VALLADAREZ on February 05, 2019:

I would love to be added to the PR list so I can try different products.

Jacqueline on August 12, 2018:

Hello I am trying out my new blog and I am already on pinterest I am looking for free makeup samples to my friends and coworkers giving event parties as well

Elayne from Rocky Mountains on June 26, 2018:

I have several articles about beauty - I should start a blog and just make it about beauty and put them all together. Great suggetions.

Vaanikanda on June 26, 2018:

These products are looking very nice.pls tell how i get free these products samples.

When I became interested in learning more about my faith, I stumbled on the Muslim modesty movement. As Muslims, men and women are supposed to adhere to certain rules of dressing; they are meant to wear loose clothing that covers their awrah (areas that are meant to be covered). After years of not being visible in mainstream media, Muslims are gaining traction on Instagram, and on the runway, through the modest fashion movement.

What Is the Modest Fashion Movement?

The modest fashion movement is a fashion scene where fashion bloggers and designers offer examples of appropriate clothing that allows for self-expression without sacrificing one’s religious beliefs. The movement stems from the UK and Europe, as you’ll see later on. Writer Hannah Almassi, describing the movement on the famous fashion blog "Who What Wear," quotes Reina Lewis, professor of cultural fashion at London College of Fashion. Lewis says, “Modest fashion as a term, as a market term, came to prevalence in the mid-2000s, and this was partly because a number of the brands that first started up came from designers and creative entrepreneurs who were themselves religiously motivated."

Religious motivation may sound archaic, but the resulting fashion is not. I was lucky enough to witness some of this movement as it unfolded. Most of the modesty movement’s key players were regular modern Muslims. In other words, they were not looking to wear traditionally Eastern clothing. Instead, they tended to marry their Islamic beliefs to their Western upbringing (more on that later).

Why Is Modest Fashion Popular Now?

You may wonder why this movement is gaining momentum just now. It is because the fashion industry is now open to new ideas and new creators from the Internet. For a lot of people online, the dialogue now has shifted to the topic of inclusion and diversity. As more members of minority groups have their voices heard, the more the fashion industry works to satisfy this need within its audience.

[T]ake a second to think about where fashion is headed right now: Social media has prompted diversity to become a mainstay—not a gimmick—within the industry. It's also shone a light on the (obvious) facts that women of different shapes, faiths, colors, sizes, and backgrounds can be just as stylish and can be equally valuable customers.

— Hannah Almassi

Key Players in the Movement

These are some of the most prominent figures in the modest fashion movement. Some of them have collaborated with fashion designers or became designers themselves.

Key Player 1: Dina Torkia (Tokio)

Dina Torkia (who tweaked her last name online to “Tokio”) has been part of the online fashion world for ten years. Part Egyptian, this British hijabi began posting on YouTube. While I did not find her until around five years ago, she made a strong impression on many fashion lovers, including me. She creates colorful and vivacious outfits that allow a person to express themselves without committing sins. Torkia’s videos are notoriously known for being frank and blunt. Among my favorite videos of hers is the one I’ll include below on H&M’s modest collection.

Torkia’s fashion sense is a bit more westernized, some may argue, as she does not wear the hijab in the typical way many Muslims wear it. In an interview with Alice Rowsome from Vice Impact, Torkia says, “I used to wear it the traditional way, not really traditional but when you are clearly more Muslim and wrap it around under your chin. But now I find it very difficult to wear it that way. I get crazy anxiety. That's why I wear it this way, turban-style, it just looks easier on the eye for some people.”

You can see Dina Torkia in action on her website.

Key Player 2: Habiba Da Silva

Habiba is another Brit on the list (you’ll notice a pattern in that regard). Da Silva is part Brazilian and part Lebanese. She tends to wear muted colors and extra-loose clothing. She creates some of my favorite look-books (collections of outfits, often shared with music in the background). Da Silva has released three hijab collections thus far. Each collection included shades of muted colors, but they garnered international interest as their campaigns included diverse groups of models.

Da Silva, like Torkia, posts on YouTube regularly. Her videos tend to include beauty routines, makeup, self-care, and fashion. My favorite videos of Habiba’s are the ones where she tries out different stores to see if one can dress modestly using their items.

For more on Habiba Da Silva, check out her website.

Key Player 3: Mariah Idrissi

A Pakistani and Moroccan Brit, Mariah Idrissi earned her spot center stage as the first hijabi model. She was included in H&M’s fashion campaign in 2015. Her videos on YouTube are scarce, but big hits regardless. In 2016, she gave a speech on TedX Teen, where she discussed changing the face of fashion to include more diverse groups of models. Meanwhile, Idrissi has recently attracted more attention as she announced that a beauty campaign dropped her, fearing that her hijab would restrict the campaign's potential audience.

Mariah Idrissi is mostly active on her Instagram.

Key Player 4: Eileen "Eslimah" Lahi

Eileen is an Estonian revert whose style is breezy and fairy-tale-like. She dresses in soft colors and her clothes are characterized by their billowy loose fit. While she is not active on YouTube, she focuses on faith and travel on her Instagram. Now based in Qatar, Eileen often showcases the beauty of her new home and takes her audience on trips around the world, too.

Key Player 5: Nabiila Bee

Another Brit on the list, Nabiila has recently become a fashion designer. Her designs include sweatshirts, scarves, and bags. Nabiila rose to fame through her YouTube scarf tutorials. She also is known for her colorful style of clothing. Like Torkia, she alternates between turban-style hijabs and traditional scarf models.

For more of her fashion, check out her YouTube channel.

Other Key Players

Many other bloggers and fashion designers are effective movers and shakers in the modest fashion movement.

Challenges for the Modest Fashion Movement

It may seem that all is groovy for the modest fashion movement, but it is not so. Adrianne Pasquarelli enthusiastically lists the new avenues opening up for this movement. She writes, “Muslim marketing is going mainstream. Last month, Macy's began selling the Verona Collection, a brand of modest clothing that includes traditional hijab head coverings, to court Muslim women. Adidas walked a hijab-wearing model down the runway in its New York Fashion Week show several weeks ago. And last year, Ayana Ife became the first Muslim designer on Lifetime's popular ‘Project Runway.’”

While all of these things are true, the modest fashion movement is far from being inclusive enough. For example, you may have noticed that the primary key figures mentioned in this hub are from the UK. There is not enough representation of people of color from other backgrounds. Besides, many of the women taking center stage are of Arab descent. Where are the black Muslims? Where are the Asian Muslims? Where are Muslims not from western countries at all?

Besides, if you look at pictures from most participants of this movement, you’ll see a typical body type. Most of these women are thin. The only woman of color who is also a hijabi, plus size, and African American who is starting to get noticed is Leah Vernon, who posts often on the lack of diversity when it comes to this movement. She often talks about the effects of said isolation from the Muslim community.

Furthermore, when it comes to finding clothing that is available for people who can't afford shops at the mall, there is a real shortage of modest clothing available year round. As someone who is plus size and Muslim, I really struggle to have variety in the clothing available to me while still adhering to my faith's modesty rules. Plus, most of the clothes available to me are not fashionable or appealing. It's frustrating.

Bibliography

Almassi, Hannah. “What Does Modest Fashion Really Look Like?” Who What Wear. 22 Feb. 2018. Accessed 20 May 2018. https://www.whowhatwear.com/modest-fashion

Pasquarelli, Adrienne. “Modest Fashion Goes Mainstream.” AdAge. 08 Mar. 2018. Accessed 27 May 2018. http://adage.com/article/cmo-strategy/modest-mainstream/312591/

Rowsome, Alice. “Muslim YouTuber Dina Tokio Tells Us How She Uses Her Platform to Fight Islamophobia.” Impact Vice. 1 Nov. 2017. Accessed 27 May 2018. https://impact.vice.com/en_us/article/gyjvz3/muslim-youtuber-dina-tokio-tells-us-how-she-uses-her-platform-to-fight-islamophobia

© 2018 Dina AH

Dolores's interest in fashion history dates from her teenage years when vintage apparel was widely available in thrift stores.

How the West Views the East

Orientalism refers to Asian styles and concepts as interpreted and presented by people of the West. Although trades routes have existed since ancient times, changes in trade, invasions, wars, and the increasing movement of people in the Middle Ages introduced new ideas, designs, fabrics, and elements of Asian costume to Europe. Western viewpoints colored by limited perception offered Asia to Europeans as a fairy-tale-like land of mystery and novelty.

The first known use of the word "Oriental" occurred in the 14th century and referred to any area east or southeast of Europe. While many in the West admired the fabrics and designs of the East, many viewed Asia and the Middle East as unchristian and barbaric and pretended that invasion and colonization was liberation. India fell under British rule in order to empower and enrich the East India Company.

There is a fine line between admiration and cultural appropriation. Appreciation for Asian textiles and the less structured costume of the East contrasts with the use of religious symbols as decoration. Admiration for the softer lines and drapery of feminine garments contrasts with the inappropriately sexualized view of Asian women. Orientalism is as old and complex as human history and has been an influence on how Western people have dressed for a long time.

The Silk Road

The Ancient World

The Silk Road, a term coined by German geographer Ferdinand von Richthofen in 1877, refers to trade routes between Persia and China from 500–300 BCE until 1453 CE. Traded items moved from Egypt, through Persia, Turkey, and India to China and included silk, gunpowder, and spices. China kept the production of silk a secret. Byzantine Emperor Justinian (who reigned 527–565 CE) sent spies to China to steal those secrets. The spies returned with the silkworms that gave birth to a Byzantine silk industry that produced luxurious textiles for the elite.

Alexander the Great (527–565 BCE) sometimes adopted the costume of lands that he invaded. Plutarch said that Alexander "first put on the barbaric dress perhaps with the view of making the work of civilizing the Persians easier as nothing gains more upon men than a conformity to their customs." Alexander mixed costumes of various cultures and incorporated foreign customs in his attempt to subjugate the known world.

When the Ottoman Turks invaded Constantinople in 1453, the Byzantine Empire, already weakened by the destruction caused by crusaders, fell. Trade routes to the East were cut off to Europe.

The Crusades

In 1091 Pope Urban sent an army to the Middle East in order to establish Christianity and gain European control over the area. For two hundred years, various crusades sought to bring Christian civilization to "barbaric" Islamic lands. Instead of savages, crusaders found a refined culture of well-dressed people. In Egypt, Fatimid Cairo presented a middle class and a society based on religious tolerance.

At the time, the people of Europe dressed in fairly plain clothing with few embellishments. Garments were tailored, and the fabric was without any patterns. European clothing was a statement of class, occupation, and function reflecting a static class system.

Middle Eastern costume was less structured than the costume of Europe. Robes and flowing garments featured stripes, embroidery, printed, and checked designs. Beautiful silk robes were given as honors, and upward mobility was reflected in the wearing of more refined clothing. The idea that status could be earned through deeds, or trade rather than birth intrigued many Europeans.

Crusaders brought these new ideas along with textiles home. The novelty and beauty of new types of fabrics fascinated Europeans and impacted the way they dressed as well as how they viewed their static society. Islamic textiles appeared in Christian churches. Women's dresses became longer with flowing trains. Headgear became more ornate. Even monks returned from the Holy Land clad, shockingly, in striped robes.

Middle Ages

The clothing of the Middle Ages was influenced by the perceived ideals of the East. Middle Eastern costume gave rise to the fairy tale quality often associated with that time. The merchant class proclaimed their wealth by wearing fine fabrics with complex patterns, embroidered inscriptions, and metallic threads. Men wore poulaines, pointy-toed shoes whose length indicated status and wealth. Turbans became popular headgear for men.

The Church grew concerned over what they viewed as the decadence of an emerging class that wore their new-found status in luxurious materials. Government officials worried that displays of new wealth upset the old social structure. The hunger for extravagance led to financial concerns as some members of the monied class fell into bankruptcy when they spent all their money on clothing.

Sumptuary laws, established to constrain extravagance, limited the use of luxurious fabric by law. The toe length of poulaines was restricted by class. The height of hennins, tall conical hats worn by women was regulated by class. While a princess could wear her hennin up to a yard in height, members of nobility were restricted to 24" tall headpieces.

Direct Trade With China

While trade routes to the East had been in place since ancient times, the Polo family were the first Christian Central Europeans to have direct contact with the area we know today as China. Nicolo and Matteo Polo traveled to China in 1260. In 1271 they returned to China with Nicolo's son, Marco. Marco Polo traveled extensively throughout China as well as Indochina and Myanmar. Polo presented China as a technologically superior culture. His book The Travels of Marco Polo was one of the most widely read books in Europe. Hungry for novelty and innovation, Europe pursued trade with China, importing spices, technology, dishware, and fabrics. Beguiled by new designs and concepts yet lacking in a real understanding of the distant land, Westerners filled the gaps of ignorance with fantasy.

The East India Company

Until the 18th century, India produced more technologically advanced textiles than Europe. The intense colors produced by mordant dyes created fabrics with brilliant colors that did not fade. Patterns based on nature included stylized florals, animals, birds, and intricate borders. The greatest textile producer in the world, India gave us calico, cotton, Pashmina, and chintz.

Indian words came into common English usage by way of the textile trade, including "pajama," "dungaree," "khaki," and "calico." Their dyes created beautiful, deep colors. Indigo offered an intense blue that Europe was unable to produce with woad. Tumeric produced yellows, and alizarin produced bright red.

In the 1500s, Portugal had a monopoly on Indian textiles, introducing calico to Europe. By 1630, the Dutch earned 65–160% profit from their Indian textile trade.

In the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, England sent ships to the Indian port of Surat. A merchants group called the East India Company established factories in 1615, then expanded creating English communities and trade operations in Calcutta, Mumbai, and Madras. Commercial expansion, fueled by the might makes right mentality, led to war and plunder. The East India Company created its own army and levied taxes on the inhabitants of the region. Formerly wealthy Indian states ravaged by war fell into poverty. A famine in 1769–70 decimated the population.

An uprising in 1857 led to the abolition of the East India Company. The British government stepped in and created the British Raj and making Queen Victoria the Empress of India. British occupation of India led to the subjugation of the Indian people who remained under British rule until 1947.

Japan

From 1639 until the mid 19th century, Japan remained isolated from the West. In order to establish an Eastern Pacific safe harbor and supply station, Commander Matthew Perry of the U.S. sailed four ships into Tokyo Bay. Reluctant Japanese authorities capitulated to the threat of force. Eventually, trade pacts were established.

A popular surge of Japanese style soon followed with a Japanese influence on art and design. Crashing waves, chrysanthemums, woodblock prints, and fish patterns soon appeared in Western textiles. Though elements of kimono style had appeared in the past, new less-structured garments similar to kimonos showed up in Victorian tea gowns.

French designers like Charles Frederick Worth incorporated loose sleeves and the crossed bodice of kimonos into his evening dress designs.

In the 1870s, Japan's silk production methods proved superior to that of other countries leading to Japan cornering the silk market in Europe and the United States of America.

In the early 1900s, Madeline Violet designed kimono style garments using minimal cutting. Elizabeth Hawes created Japanese inspired clothing in the 1930s using modern kimono fabric.

The Great Exhibitions

The Victorian era introduced a number of huge exhibitions that featured foreign cultures. Exhibitions in Europe and the U.S. offered a supposed glimpse into the lives of colonial subjects. Often depicted a backward and referred to as "savages," people were displayed in human zoos. Mock villages were set up to show how "exotic" people lived. Sometimes people were displayed in actual zoos, in cages alongside animals.

The depiction of the supposed inferior people of colonized areas of the world encouraged visitors to appreciate the civilizing influence of the colonists.

At the same time, Westerners loved the textiles and designs of Asia, the Middle East, and North Africa. Artists and designers of the Aesthetic Movement, a group that stood against modern production methods and the loss of craftsmanship, looked to the East (as well as medieval Europe) for inspiration. An appreciation of less structured, more draped garments led to a style highlighted by beauty and comfort.

Liberty's of London

In the late 1800s, a craze for all things Asian inspired Farmer and Rogers Oriental Warehouse, a store that offered Kashmir shawls, fabrics, and Oriental goods. Arthur Lasenby Liberty managed the Oriental Warehouse until he opened his own store Liberty's of London, which became an iconic shopping destination.

Liberty's offered Middle Eastern and Asian goods in the Basement Eastern Bazaar. The shop sold imported silks, naturally dyed fabrics, hand-painted fabrics, tea gowns, and kimonos. Liberty's produced fabrics designed in collaboration with Pre Raphaelite artists like Dante Gabriel Rosetti, and William Morris. The Pre Raphaelite Movement designers favored the Dress Reform Movement, a concept that rejected stiff tailoring and the wearing of corsets in favor of more gracefully draped garments with an Asian influence.

Dress reformers of the late 1800s introduced Turkish trousers worn with a knee-length dress as a more practical way for women to dress. The concept fell flat and did not return until the 20th century.

Orientalism in the 20th Century

Western interest in Eastern clothing and textiles continued into the 20th century. Fashion designers like Paul Poiret and Mariano Fortuny created exotic styles based on Middle Eastern and Asian motifs.

Paul Poiret, inspired by Leon Bakst's costumes for the Russian Ballet, designed garments that featured tunics worn with harem pants which were full in the leg and gathered at the ankle. Turbans became popular headgear. Mariano Fortuny used Japanese and southeast Asian hand block printing methods on his fabrics. He designed garments influenced by Moroccan djellaba, Arabic abaya, kimonos, Coptic tunics, and Indian saris.

When Howard Carter opened the Tomb of the Pharaoh Tutankhamun (King Tut) in Egypt in 1922, a craze for ancient Egyptian influenced fashion soon followed. Sheath dresses featured beaded necklines that recalled an ancient Egyptian broad collar. Pleated skirts echoed the ancient Egyptian style. And jewelry designs based on the beautiful jewels found in the tomb became popular.

Early 20th-century pulp magazines, stage shows, and films portrayed women of North Africa, the Middle East, and China as hypersexualized femme fetales. Up into mid-century, movies featured Chinese and Japanese women as either meek and subservient or as a scheming dragon lady, an exotic predatory female. The 1960 film, The World of Suzy Wong used a respectable garment called a cheongsam to glamorize a prostitute in the film.

During World War II, the West turned away from Japanese influences. Fabric and material restriction led to simple, tailored women's clothing for some years during and right after the war.

In 1948, Christian Dior created models he christened Chino, Shanghai, and later designed Hong Kong, and Chinoseries.

The hippie movement of the 1960s brought a new interest in the East. People of this new Bohemian counter culture rejected the stiff tailoring that was a hallmark of mid-century style. A new interest in Eastern design, music, religion, and philosophy created a whole new fashion. Of course, for the most part, real interest was shallow and more about how things looked.

Middle Eastern kaftans became popular garments for their comfort and exotic appeal. Paisley prints based on an old Indian design motif became an iconic feature of hippie trends.

The Nehru jacket briefly offered an alternative to classic Western suit jackets. A high round collar appeared above a front button closure on a long jacket similar to a jacket worn by Independent India's first prime minister, Jawaharlal Nehru. Long beads similar to Indian meditation beads were often paired with the jacket.

In 1978, Edward Said published Orientalism in which he portrayed the West's off and on obsessions with all things Eastern as a paternalistic, imperialistic view of all non-Western people and their cultures. Said encouraged readers to attempt to understand traditional Western perceptions in a new light.

Late 20th Century–Today

Throughout the 20th century and into the 21st, haute couture designers found inspiration in Asia, the Middle East, and North Africa. Coco Chanel, Yves St. Laurent, Jean Paul Gaultier, Alexander McQueen, and Vivienne Westwood all created garments based on non-Western culture.

John Galliano produced "A Voyage on the Disorient Express" for the House of Dior in the fall/winter of 1998–99. The title of the show appears to poke fun at either the Chinese influence or his own take on the culture. His 2003 designs included motifs inspired by Chinese opera. In 2007, Dior's collection included a dress with a version of Katshushika Holusai's famous Great Wave off the Coast of Kanagawa hand-painted on the skirt.

The Metropolitan Museum of Art's show China Through the Looking Glass in 2015 recalled Alice's famous journey through a fantastic and nonsensical world. The show's concept was to depict the power of textile and costume, how costume informs our view of other cultures in both positive and negative ways. The work of Chinese artists and designers was included in the show.

Amanda Holpuch in the Guardian said that China Through the Looking Glass was, as is Orientalism in general, not so much about China as about our "collective fantasy about China."

In the book Orientalism Visions of the East in Western Dress, Harold Koda and Richard Morton state that the "inscrutability attributed to the East is, in fact, the West's failure achieve full comprehension."

Sources

Fashion and Orientalism - Dress, Textiles, and Culture from the 17th Century to the 21st Century by Adam Geczy; A & CBlack; NY; 2013

Orientalism - Visions of the East in Western Dress by Richard Martin and Harold Koda, Metropolitan Museum of Art; NY; 1994

Our Oriental Heritage by Will Durant; Simon and Schuster; NY; 1954

MET's China Through the Looking Glass Presents a Fantasy of the Far East by Amanda Holpuch; The Guardian; May 4, 2015

John Galliano on Why He Loves Chinese Motifs by Mark Guiducci; Vogue; April 21, 2015

© 2018 Dolores Monet

I am a content writer and Hubpages contributor. I am a lover of music, culture and fashion and adore the overlap of the three topics.

The Birth of Dickies Workwear

Dickies is an American workwear brand that first became present back in 1922. The brand focused its attention on creating workwear that was durable and built to last. On its creation, the workwear brand had no desire to draw attention to itself. As time progressed, Dickies workwear became an essential fashion statement, especially among skaters.

Nowadays, Dickies can be seen sported by celebrities such as Justin Bieber and A$AP Rocky. Dickies was one of the first workwear brands to become fashionable and boasts nearly a century of business. Other brands such as Patagonia, North Face, Carhartt, and Site King are also seen as fashionable by today's standards, even though this was not the intended purpose of the introduction of these brands. The question is, how did this happen, and are they around to stay?

How Dickies Became the Uniform of Skaters

During the late '80s and early '90s, Dickies had started to attract the skate community to their brand. This was because the clothing was inexpensive, hard-wearing and had a sense of authenticity. It became the perfect attire to skate in and therefore became somewhat of a uniform among skaters.

The popularity of Dickies workwear led to other unconventional brands, such as North Face, attracting a larger market. The workwear industry owes a lot to skaters, as it was the skaters that helped push the clothing to the next level. Dickies recognised this and began to release clothing that was targeted towards skaters whilst retaining its signature patriotism. Dickies was the American dream of clothing, and this gave the brand further appeal.

Reinvention and Collaboration

As time progressed, the skateboarding base became older and began to move away from Dickies. This led to the company reinventing itself to become more fashionable. Dickies had become a global brand with a strong American feel. This reinvention was a success and led to a collaboration with Opening Ceremony. This merge combined the high price tag of Opening Ceremony alongside the authentic feel of Dickies workwear.

Another Workwear-to-Fashion Brand: Levi's

Just like Dickies, Levi's is another brand that become fashionable over time. The original Levi's jeans were designed for workers of the mines. This is why they were so strong and reliable. As time went on, people adopted these durable jeans in everyday life, and now Levi's have grown to become one of the most successful clothing brands of all time. Levi's had a head start on Dickies, as Levis jeans were first introduced in the 1800s.

The Story of Levi's Jeans

The original 501 Levi's jeans were first introduced in the 1890s. These tough jeans were designed for miners, cowboys and farmers. Women wore the original Levi's; however, as time progressed, Levi's introduced their own range of 501 jeans, which were fitted especially for women.

It was not until the late 1940s that the 501 jeans became a part of mainstream media. Celebrity icons such as Marilyn Monroe wore 501 jeans. This dramatically improved popularity among women, and soon the shift started moving towards designer fashion as opposed to strictly workwear.

Levi's Becomes the Biker Brand

Just like skaters adopted Dickies, bikers adopted Levi's. Levi's jeans became a rebellious symbol in culture, which led to their increased popularity. Marlon Brando famously wore 501 jeans as well as greasers and motorcycle gangs.

During the '60s, Levi's reinvented themselves once again and introduced paint, rips and patches to symbolise self-expression. Nowadays, we regard Levi's as a designer brand and often forget that the foundation was built on the working man and woman.

The Levi's website features an interesting timeline that explains the story of the brand in full. The timeline can be found at Levi's Jeans Timeline.

Practical Fashion and Workwear

Many brands such as North Face have seen mainstream success due to their products practical use in the real world. Workwear has become attire that can be worn in almost any scenario. Cargo trousers were historically worn for work; however, more people wear these trousers in everyday life as they provide additional storage. The practicality and convenience of workwear is another reason why so many people adopt this clothing style into their everyday life.

Practicality is the big trend of the 21st century. People love convenience, which is why apps like Uber or JustEat are so popular. We are evolving to become more practical, and this can be reflected in the clothing we choose to wear.

Designer workwear has left a gap for inexpensive brands to provide workwear for consumers.

Workwear Is Fashionable, But for How Much Longer?

It is obvious that workwear has reached somewhat of a fashion statement. More people are paying top prices for workwear brands. Over the past years we have seen more collaborations between fashion brands and workwear brands, which has led to celebrity endorsement and high price tags. When a celebrity such as Justin Bieber wears an item of clothing, you can almost guarantee it will become more popular. This is what we are seeing a lot of with workwear brands.

Workwear Is Here to Stay

What we get now is a split between high cost designer workwear and true to the core workwear brands. Designer workwear has left a gap for inexpensive brands to provide workwear for consumers. The split between fashion and practicality in workwear means the industry has double the market to dominate.

This means consumers have the choice between affordable yet durable workwear and also designer workwear. Both markets have their own appeal, which signals that the industry will continue to dominate. Celebrity endorsement has helped a great deal in pushing workwear brands such as Dickies and I believe that this "trend" is here to stay.

Workwear Brands

Comments

Max Smith (author) from London on March 06, 2018:

Thank you for the kind words :)

Movie Whisperer from Moreton Bay, Queensland on March 06, 2018:

Awesome first article. Keep up the good work!

I REALLY Love 1970s Fashion

Well, I am often told that I look like I stepped out of the 1970s, and I can fully see that.

I wear a lot of floppy hats, palazzo pants, paisley prints, maxi dresses, boots, big sunglasses, long vests, and other clothing, accessories, and prints popular at the time. My hair is long and flowing, usually very natural, and I typically have very 70s bangs.

I'm in a rock n' roll band (Odds Fish) that plays rock music very much inspired by the likes of Led Zeppelin, Queen, Rush, David Bowie, and The Rolling Stones (who were all big in the 70s), and I am very much inspired by diverse fashion icons of the 1970s as well, such as Stevie Nicks, Joni Mitchell, Cher, David Bowie, Freddy Mercury, Diana Ross, Debbie Harry, Robert Plant, Ali MacGraw, Grace Jones, Bianca Jagger, Diane Keaton, Mick Jagger, and more.

I can't help it... I just LOVE the 1970s!

The History of 70s Fashion

When I decided to create this list of "70 Fashion Trends of the 70s," it was not that hard for me to recall the hot trends because I myself do seem to live them! Plus, I am pretty well versed in my history (at least when it comes to what influenced fashion!)

In the 1970s, fashion was mostly influenced by musical genres (punk, glam rock, psychedelic rock, etc.) but people also took cues from other sources of entertainment as well. Television shows like Charlie's Angels had a big impact on people (I mean, the Farrah Fawcett haircut is basically equivalent to the 90s popular haircut "The Rachel," for reference) but it wasn't just TV influencing fashion trends. Movies such as Mahogany, Annie Hall, Saturday Night Fever, and Grease all had impacts on the popular fashion looks of the day (with Grease in turn supporting a 1950s and rockabilly revival). Fashion models and style icons of the time also influenced the public: people like Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis, Lauren Hutton, Beverly Johnson, Iman, Janice Dickinson, Jerry Hall, Cheryl Tiegs, and more fashionistas made the 1970s a time of fierce, powerful, fashion that was as fun as it was important!

I say important, because many 70s looks can be considered steps forward, for feminism, for example.

But even though I do know a lot about 1970s fashion, I may have somehow missed some big ones, so if I did, please let me know in the comments section below.

Now, I present to you the 70 fashion trends of the 70s!

70 Fashion Trends of the 70s (1-10)

(in no particular order)

1. Floppy Hats
2. Platform Shoes
3. Jumpsuits
4. Wrap Dresses (which debuted in the 70s!)
5. Bell Bottoms and Bell Sleeves
6. Crop Tops / Tube Tops / Tops Tied to Show Off the Belly
7. Boots (Thigh High/Knee High/Ankle Boots/Cowboy Boots, etc.)
8. Both Fitted and Flowing Button Down Shirts
9. Denim Shirts and Jackets
10. Fur and Shearling Coats, Vests, and Stoles

70 Fashion Trends of the 70s (11-20)

(in no particular order)

11. Corduroy (Pants, Jackets, Overalls, etc.)
12. Hot Pants
13. High-Waisted Pants and Skirts
14. Patchwork Clothing
15. A-Line Skirts
16. Ruffled Shirts (Victorian and Edwardian Revival / "Teddy Boy" Revival)
17. Peasant Tops/Skirts/Dresses
18. Flutter Sleeves (Shirts and Dresses)
19. Neck scarves/Ascots
20. Headbands/Headscarves/Turbans

70 Fashion Trends of the 70s (21-30)

(in no particular order)

• 21. Women's Pantsuits/Business Suits
• 22. Leather! (Especially Pants and Jackets)
• 23. Tartan Pants/Skirts (Especially in the Punk Music Scene)
• 24. Ascot Blouses
• 25. See-Through Clothing Items
• 26. "Americana" Clothing (Red, White, and Blue)
• 27. "Off the Shoulder" Blouses, Dresses, Pantsuits, etc.
• 28. Turquoise Jewelry
• 29. Knit Sweaters (Paired with Thick Tights and Boots)
• 30. Sequins (On Dresses, Jackets, Pantsuits, etc.)

70 Fashion Trends of the 70s (31-40)

(in no particular order)

31. Nehru Jackets
32. Mood Rings
33. Palazzo Pants
34. Pearls
35. Sweater Dresses
36. Vests (Especially Long Vests)
37. Big Hats with Flowers on Them (Victorian Revival)
38. Babydoll Dresses
39. Suede
40. Farrah Fawcett Hair

70 Fashion Trends of the 70s (41-50)

(in no particular order)

41. Long Sleeved Mini Dresses
42. Vests, Coats, and Boots with Fringe
43. Moccasins
44. Graphic T-Shirts
45. Birkenstocks
46. Tie-dye
47. Colored Lens Sunglasses
48. Rhinestones
49. Lots and Lots of Lace
50. Feather Boas

70 Fashion Trends of the 70s (51-60)

(in no particular order)

51. Men's Leisure Suits
52. Terrycloth Shirts
53. Neckties
54. Long, Flowing, Natural Hair
55. Bangs
56. Belts (Leather, Braided, Bright Colors, etc.)
57. Pastels (Especially in Suits)
58. Bold Prints, Bright Colors, Big Patterns (Paisley, Chevron, Flowers, etc.)
59. Crocheted Items
60. Ponchos

70 Fashion Trends of the 70s (61-70)

(in no particular order)

• 61. Maxi Dresses
• 62. Cloche Hats (1920s Revival)
• 63. Looks Inspired by Musicians (Rock, Punk, New Wave, Rockabilly, Glam Rock, Folk, Psychedelic Rock, Jazz, Disco, etc.)
• 64. Izod /LaCoste Polo Shirts
• 65. Newsboy Caps
• 66. Knit Caps with Pom Poms
• 67. Over-sized Sunglasses
• 68. Strappy Sandals
• 69. Big Hoop Earrings
• 70. Afros

That's All, Folks!

There you have it - 70 fashion trends of the 1970s. Were there any surprises? Were some of you taking a stroll down memory lane? Who is inspired to steal some of these treasured looks? And what 70s fashions did I miss? Let me know in the comments below!

Looking Back at 1970s Fashion

What do you think of these 1970s fashions?

Comments - Please Let Me Know What You Thought of These 70 Fashion Trends of the 70s!

Ella on August 22, 2019:

Thank you for this lovely inspiring article!!

Alma on August 14, 2019:

Amazing Era 70's your article inspiring ...Will seek vintage clothing unfortunatly, the onces in my closet no longer fit.

Thanks for the memories for ever young!!!

Alma

I've spent half a century (yikes) writing for radio and print—mostly print. I hope to be still tapping the keys as I take my last breath.

Luxuriant hair was a status symbol among the European upper classes in the 17th and 18th centuries; baldness consigned an egghead to public ridicule.

One way that men became bald was by inheriting the hair loss gene through their mother's line. Another way was to have a tumble in the sheets with the wrong kind of person. Seventeenth and eighteenth century Europe was ravaged by an epidemic of syphilis, and one of its several unpleasant side effects was hair loss. Enter the wig, known as a peruke.

Covent Garden Nuns

From the 16th to the 18th centuries, there was a rampant sex trade in London. Centred on the theatres around Covent Garden, hundreds of prostitutes sold their services giving the bacterium Treponema pallidum ample opportunities to colonize new hosts.

The women were often referred to euphemistically as “Covent Garden Nuns,” and their customers were mostly from the upper classes, the only level of society that could afford to buy theatre tickets and sex.

Theatre-goers might consult a publication entitled the List of Covent Garden Ladies. Published annually from 1760 to 1793, it provided reviews of the upper echelon members of the sisterhood as one might review restaurants today. Another publication of a similar nature was called The Covent Garden Magazine or Amorous Repository. In a subtitle it informed purchasers that it was “calculated solely for the entertainment of the polite world and the Finishing of a Young Gentleman’s Education.”

Using these guides to set up a quick romp after the final curtain was likely to lead to infection and baldness.

The Wig Fashion Starts

The syphilitic infection was no respecter of rank; even royalty became victims.

One of the early adopters of the wig fashion was King Louis XIII of France (1601-1643). He was only 17 when his hairline started to recede, something that would seriously damage his public image. He decided to go with big hair.

His son, Louis XIV, was similarly challenged and developed a balding pate early. Taking his father’s lead he hired 48 wig makers to give him a bouffant style to cover up his embarrassingly shiny dome. Of course, once the boss started wearing a wig, so did all the courtiers with a smidgen of ambition.

As France was, at the time, the arbiter of European fashion, the wearing of wigs spread. England’s Charles II, Louis XIV’s cousin, took to wearing big hair as well.

When Louis died at the grand old age (for the time) of 76, his body was riddled with syphilis. Charles II bedded vast numbers of women both aristocratic and not. Unsurprisingly, he suffered from syphilis and expired at the age of 54 in 1685.

The Unclean

Another reason why wigs became popular had to do with personal hygiene or, more accurately, the lack thereof. During the 17th and 18th centuries there was a widespread belief that bathing made people vulnerable to disease. Warm water was thought to open the pores of the skin and allow the plague entry points.

So, people followed the medical advice of such worthies as Dominican friar Thomas Moulton, who wrote “use no baths or stoves; nor swet not too much, for all openeth the pores of a manne’s body and maketh the venomous ayre to enter and for to infecte the bloude.”

As a result of the lack of washing, people gave off a noxious fragrance. Henry IV of France (Louis XIII’s father) was described as “stinking of sweat, stables, feet, and garlic.”

Consequently, of course, most people were infested by head lice. A practical solution to having these nasty little beasties in the hair was to remove the hair. To cover up the shaved noggin, wigs were necessary.

The lice were still around, of course. But now they lived in the wigs, nipping onto the scalp every now and then for a blood meal. Getting rid of them, at least temporarily, was simply a matter of boiling the wig. No more time-consuming nitpicking.

Powder was applied to the wigs in profusion. It was made of various concoctions of starch or chalk with the addition of lavender or orange flower scents. It was believed that the powder reduced the lice population. It had other benefits; it was fashionable for people to powder their wigs white. Others favoured the aromatic powder as a way of masking their own funky bouquet.

Wig Fashion Goes Mad

Soon, the need for wigs to compensate for unhealthy habits gave way to their utility as a means of displaying wealth; the more luxuriant the tresses, the richer the wearer. As the wig attained celebrity status, the lesser mortals who aspired to higher rank took to wearing the things.

Once the common herd could wear a hairpiece, the aristocracy had to put them in their place by going bigger and, therefore, more expensive. Some curly manes brushed past the shoulders to halfway down the back, while others went high. The grander the wearer, the grander the wig; hence the expression "bigwig."

The best wigs required human hair and there was a cottage industry involved in harvesting the raw material. Novices entering convents had their locks shaved off and, presumably, sold by the Mother Superior to a middleman. Convicts could be coerced into surrendering their hair, as could poverty-stricken peasant girls in need of a meal.

It’s believed that hair was also taken from corpses; they couldn't be said to need it any more. The 17th century diarist Samuel Pepys recorded that he hesitated to put on his new wig because he suspected it might have been made from the hair of plague victims.

One-upmanship dictated that these hairy confections were destined to grow higher. Particularly among women, hair extensions were woven into cages and decorated with jewels and ribbons. Some of these extravagant constructions even contained bird cages complete with twittering occupants.

The End of the Wig Fad

The French Revolution killed the peruke fashion along with much of the aristocracy. The over-the-top wigs were associated with the excesses of the nobility and had to go.

In Britain, Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger found a less drastic way of ending the popularity of wigs; he placed a tax on wig powder in 1795. One of several creative tax measures designed to balance the budget.

Bonus Factoids

• The wealthy employed people to "dress" their hair rather than cut it, so that today we entrust the management of our curls to "hairdressers," not "hair cutters."
• The development of elaborate wigs caused the emergence of a whole new criminal class―the wig-snatcher―who would pull the fancy peruke off the wearer in the street and sell it to less affluent customers.
• The popularity of wigs spread to the European colonies. But one dignitary never wore a wig. Portraits of George Washington give the impression he wore a hairpiece, but he didn’t. He powdered and curled his own hair.
• In the first half of the 18th century, there were more than 1,200 wig shops in Paris that provided a livelihood for 6,000 people.
• The Puritans in England, who could be counted on to take the fun out of everything, denounced the fashion by declaring that “Ye wearing of extravagant superfluous wigs is altogether contrary to truth.” And a clergyman in Massachusetts in 1673 railed from his pulpit that wigs were “Bushes of Vanity.”

Sources

• “Prostitution in Covent Garden.” Nigel T. Espey, Covent Garden Memories, November 9, 2012.
• “The Joy of Dirt.” The Economist, December 17, 2009.
• “The History of Wigs.” Elegantwigs.com, undated.
• “History of … Wigs.” Bayis Magazine, December 25, 2016
• “History of Wigs (Perukes) as Fashion Attire.” Yvette Mahe, fashionintime.org, April 25, 2016.

This content is accurate and true to the best of the author’s knowledge and is not meant to substitute for formal and individualized advice from a qualified professional.

© 2017 Rupert Taylor

Comments

Tony on January 13, 2018:

I'm certain that the woman smelled just as bad as the men and also carried stds.just saying

Char Milbrett from Minnesota on October 20, 2017:

Hmm. These women had to have sex with these men who smelled horrible and carried vicious diseases. Gross. I wonder if any of them protested that these sexual advances were unwanted and they did not like it. This century, we have the news each week, breathlessly telling us of men who lurk outside hotel rooms, suggesting that the women follow them into their rooms... Like a spider...

Rupert Taylor on October 19, 2017:

Thanks Paula. But in the context of the times the behaviour of the bigwigs was perfectly acceptable. Everybody smelled like a rotting pile of garbage; imagine how the lower classes stank without the benefit of scented powder. Yuck. Yuck. And double yuck. But thanks, I think, for leading me into this. I think I'll go and have a shower now. Maybe two.

Suzie from Carson City on October 19, 2017:

Rupert..... It is so nice you responded to my curiosity. Thank you for doing this fascinating research! This is as educational as can be, albeit, nauseously educational. LOL My, my, syphilis outbreaks, head lice, body odor..YUK. Now wouldn't you think these aristocrats would hesitate to advertise their really bad habits & behavior?? Wearing a wig and one with scented powder, no less? Really Rupert, it had to be a bit like announcing to the public, "I frequent houses of ill-repute, will die of syphilis and by the way, I don't bathe but once a month!" (I think I'm going to be sick!)

I can't believe the importance & attention placed on these "perukes." (Thanks for the official term of these ridiculous hair monstrosities.Notice please, if we drop the "r" & 2nd "e," it spells PUKE! ) The higher, thicker and longer the better? Henry IV reeked of sweat, stables, feet & garlic. How lovely. Not exactly a Fragrance by Ralph Lauren! OH this is funny!

Of course this is where the label, "Big Wig" originated! Who would have thought?

This is a really fun-to-read & very informative article! In fact Rupert, perhaps too much info!! LOL Love it. Paula

Rupert Taylor (author) from Waterloo, Ontario, Canada on October 19, 2017:

Louise. I think the horse hair variety must have been very itchy and some of the wigs weighed as much as five kilos. Imagine donning one those in say colonial Virginia where summer temperatures exceed 30 C with high humidity.

Louise Powles from Norfolk, England on October 19, 2017:

Yes, I've heard that about the washing and bathing. People certainly had strange ideas back then. That was really interesting to read. I learned a lot about powdered wigs. They must've been uncomfortable to wear.

Dolores's interest in fashion history dates from her teenage years when vintage apparel was widely available in thrift stores.

The 18th-Century Fashion Revolution

The 18th century revolutionized fashion concepts as well as economic, political, and philosophical ideals. The stiff, formal, and elaborately ornate styles of the early 1700s gave way, by the end of the century, to simpler garb. The French aristocracy clung to the lavish displays of court fashion just as they held on to their luxurious lifestyles, despite changes in the economy. They ended up racking up debt as high as their hairdos.

As the century progressed, English styles influenced the formerly fashion-first French. Simpler garments based on pastoral life came into vogue in England and moved into Europe. In the late 18th century, English influence relied on a sense of propriety rather than the decadent ornamentation of the elite.

New technologies, materials, and communication offered the merchant class opportunity to wear stylish garments. By the mid-1760s, women's magazines offered even rural women glimpses of current styles. The introduction of cotton and faster production techniques gave women the ability to become fashion consumers.

The beautiful gowns associated with the French aristocracy were worn at court as ceremonial dress. The more comfortable clothing worn at home called "undress" gradually replaced the cumbersome, very expensive look of court dress. Where once the hoi-polloi looked to the aristocracy for style, the elite began to lose their luster.

At-a-Glance Fashion Changes

• New technologies speed up textile production
• France was greatest fashion influencer
• Court attire and hair became extreme and flamboyant
• Century ended with simple, neoclassical styles

Textiles and Trade

The clothing industry offered occupations in spinning, weaving, tailoring, dress making, glove making, lace making, for clothiers, and trade.

Europe produced wool and linen textiles. It imported silk from the Far East and cotton, chintz, and muslin from India. In the late 1700s, England exported fabric to the New World where raw cotton had become a commodity sent to England for production.

While the upper class had clothing made for them, commoners still spun, wove, and made their own garments. The urban underclass purchased used goods from dealers. Early in the century, clothing was very expensive but new inventions and the increased availability of cotton brought costs down in later years.

The flying shuttle, invented in 1733, increased the speed of weaving. In 1785, Cartwright's power loom made weaving even faster. Eli Whitney's cotton gin (1793), later improved by Hogden Holmes, was based on India's churka (an early cotton gin) which removed the seeds from the boll to speed up production. The machine led to America's dominance in the cotton market as well as the enslavement of millions of Africans.

Europe's beautifully patterned silks permeated style in the early 1700s. By the century's end, soft muslin from India replaced heavier garments.

Early 1700s

Slender, asymetrical curves and soft drapery dominated women's costumes of the early 18th century. France greatly influenced women's styles in clothing and the decorative arts.

The mantua was a gown made of one long piece of fabric draped over the shoulders. The loose-fitting bodice was not boned or stiffened. Worn without a corset, a mantua began as a comfortable garment but evolved over the years into a more formal gown. Fabric was drawn up and pulled back to reveal the petticoat. The silk damask fabric hung in soft pleats at the top to a belted waist and hung down into a train. The train was later taken up and draped.

Gown fabric featured bold, large-patterned silks, often contrasting with plain satins in soft blues and pinks, or dark browns and greens.

A short jacket-like version of a matua called a pet-en-lair fell to the knee early on then shortened as the century progressed.

Hoops came into vogue by 1710. Cone-shaped hoops made of whale bone (actually baleen) were sewn into heavy petticoats. By the 1720s, dome-shaped hoops increased the size of skirts.

At the time, petticoats could be plain or made of a luxurious material. Pulled-back gowns often revealed petticoats of contrasting fabric. Or a printed gown fabric was worn over a petticoat made of plain material in the same color as the gown.

Bell-shaped sleeves ended at the elbow and featured lace or ruffles.

Court etiquette demanded rigid, formal attire. Women wore corsets that accentuated an extremely stiff posture. Called stays, corsets were made of stiffened fabric with boning in front and back. They laced in back, in front, or at the sides. Court costume was made of high-quality, expensive materials including silks, satins, and taffeta.

Early 18th century hair styles were fairly simple, with hair waved loosely around the face. False ringlets and cushions added volume. Long tresses were drawn up into buns on the crown of the head. Women powdered their hair for formal occasions.

The Mid-1700s

Skirts widened mid-century and court dress took on the excessive styles often associated with the 18th century. In the 1730s, silhouettes narrowed in front and back but widened through the use of panniers, a type of hoop added to each hip.

Pannier (pronounced "pahn-yay") means basket in French. Wicker contraptions attached near the hips added width to skirts creating a swaying effect when women walked, revealing more of the leg than in the past. By 1740, panniers expanded to extreme widths which made it difficult to enter a doorway. Excessive widths drew ridicule from many fronts and caused men to complain that women now took up too much space.. This style remained a staple of court dress until 1760.

Gowns and petticoats became elaborately draped and embellished with ruffles and lace. Open bodices and skirts displayed petticoats and stomachers often made of the same material as the gown so that the costume seemed all one piece.

Stomachers were inverted triangles inserted at the center of an open bodice and held in place with side tabs. Stiff stomachers could be decorated with artificial flowers, ribbons, ruffles, and lace.

Squared or oval necklines were worn low. Sleeves were worn tight to the elbow.

During this time, tight curls resembling sheep's wool and called tete de mouton puffed out on either side of the face. Tight curls were later replaced by sausage curls worn at the sides of the head.

The mantua remained popular and maintained the back pleats that would later be known at Watteau pleats, after the painter who depicted the style in 19th-century portraiture. In the 18th century, the style became known as "robe à la Francaise."

A jacket style called "casaquin" fitted tightly at the bodice but flared out below the waist to accommodate extreme skirt widths.

Madame Pompadour reigned as a fashion icon of the mid 1700s. Mistress of King Louis XV, Mme Pompadour was educated, stylish, and influential, remaining close adviser to the king long after the affair ended. A patron of the arts, Mme Pompadour (shown above) influenced Rococo in the arts, a style that featured soft curves and floral themes.

Late 18th Century

By the late 1760s, panniers gave way to hip pads creating a softer and more natural silhouette. Skirt fabric pulled through slits to form a bunched drape. False, cork-filled rumps, called bustles in the 19th century, emphasized the rear. Hemlines rose to display the leg above the ankle.

The Polonaise style of 1770-1785 reflected a growing interest in folk or pastoral costume. An underskirt was displayed by a separated over skirt that looped and puffed by means of tapes and rings (think Roman shades).

Hair styles rose to great heights in the 1770s. Massive hairdos decorated with feathers, jeweled combs, ribbons, artificial flowers, fake birds, fruit, and other objects rose in complex structures. Hair could be pulled up over wire framing. False hair pieces added to the volume. Tiny hats often perched at the top of this elaborate style.

A growing interest in a more egalitarian society and economy reduced interest in excessive garment and hair styles. English fashions that reflected sobriety encouraged the style-conscious to emphasize propriety and responsibility. As this new Anglomania swept Europe, more women wore the robe a la' Anglaise, a garment with a somewhat fuller bodice fitted close to the waist in front and back that featured wrist length sleeves. Round gowns were worn close fronted to the hem.

Oddly enough, the much hated Marie Antoinette influenced fashion trends long after her execution. While spending time playing at being a simple country woman in a small chateau on the grounds of Versailles, Marie Antoinette wore muslin gowns made of imported fabric. The resulting penchant for imported fabrics devalued the French textile trade but laid the groundwork for 1790s styles. Her gambling, extravagant spending, and close association with her home country of Austria angered a population that suffered a poor economy and food shortages.

The late 18th century ushered in a neoclassical style based on Ancient Greek and Roman design. Light muslin gowns replaced layers of ornate finery. Where once Marie Antoinette was accused of indecency for wearing garments that resembled underwear (i.e. the chemise), those same styles became the norm. Corsets softened along with the new silhouette.

By the 1790s, waistlines rose to just under the bust in a style called Empire. The look lasted into the early 1800s.

Undergarments

The chemise was a thin, full-cut linen or muslin dress with a lace-edged neckline. Worn under everything else, the lace of the chemise could peek out over the edge of low cut necklines. A chemise fell to the knees and featured full sleeves to the elbow.

Petticoats came in a wide variety of styles, weights, and fabrics and often showed as part of the costume, Fabric changed with the seasons, with linen and cotton worn in warmer months, wool flannel in winter. Calico, a good-quality finely printed cotton imported from India, was also used for petticoats.

Stays or corsets made of stiffened fabric helped maintain an erect posture. Whale bone, inserted through slots in the layered material, created more stiffening. Open-style bodices could show a corset, in which case the stays would be covered by the same fabric as the gown, or decorated with ribbons and lace.

Drawers were not yet worn under gowns.

Makeup and Jewelry

French ladies wore heavy lead-based cream as a foundation on the face and decolletage. Extremely pale faces had been in vogue since the Elizabethan era, and suggested that the wearer did not labor outdoors. Heavy makeup also covered wrinkles and blemishes. Obvious blemishes and scars were covered by tiny patches of fabric. These "beauty marks" carried symbolism related to politics and personality. Rouge added bright spots of color to cheeks and lips. Artificially darkened eyebrows were shaped and plucked. False eyebrows made of mouse skin were pasted in place. The extreme makeup style diminished toward the end of the century.

Necklaces could be made of chain or pearls. Pendants and crosses were popular as well. Jeweled hair pins and combs adorned the hair. Rings were not as common as earrings, cameos, pins, and watches. The end of the century saw simpler tastes in jewelry.

Outerwear

Full-cut cloaks could be ankle length, knee length or lip length and were often hooded and featured fur or velvet trim. Calashes were hoods with built-in hoops that created accordian pleats that held the fabric out away from the face.

When large panniers fell out of fashion, men's-wear type coats called redingotes came into vogue.

Large scarves called kerchiefs were worn around the neck. Shawls and wraps were worn indoors and out in cool weather.

Footwear

Stockings made of cotton, wool, or silk rose to the knee and were held in place by tied garters.

Shoes included backless slippers called mules. Dress shoes featured high heels, slightly pointed toes, and tongues with side pieces fastened over the instep.

Clogs or pattens, worn outdoors, in the countryside, or during inclement weather, elevated the foot above the ground.

For Further Reading

Dress in France in the Eighteenth Century by Madeleine Delprerre translated by Caroline Beamish; Yale University Press; New Haven Connecticut; 1997

The Culture of Fashion by Christopher Breward; Manchester University Press; Manchester UK and NY, NY; 1995

The Encyclopedia of Clothing and Fashion edited by Valerie Steele; Charles Scribner's Sons; NY; 2005

Survey of Historic Costume A History of Western Dress by Phyllis G Tortora and Keith Eubank; Fairchld Publications, Inc; NY; 2005

Seventeenth and Eighteenth Century Fashion in Detail by Avril Hart

Eighteenth Century French Fashion Plates in Full Color 64 Engravings From the "Galerie des Modes" 1778 - 1787 by Stella Blum

Costume Close-Up Clothing Construction and Pattern 1750 - 1790 by Linda Baumgarten, John Watson, and Florine Carr

The Dress of the People Everyday Fashion in 18th Century England by John Styles

Questions & Answers

Question: Who were the influential designers from 1700 to 1800?

Answer: Many historic costumes of the 1700s appear in museums without information on the designer.

Marie Jeanne Bertin opened a shop in 1777. The Duchess of Chartres introduced Bertin's designs to Marie Antoinette who brought the designer to Versailles to create gowns for the queen. Bertin exported fashion to European courts including London, Lisbon, and Venice.

A German shoemaker named Effien designed ornate footwear of the day. Bourdon was a French creator of elaborate, bejeweled shoes.

Legros founded the Academy of Hair Dressing, and Leonard Autie, hairdresser to Marie Antoinette, created many of the famous extreme hair designs that rose to nearly four feet in height.

Question: I am in a play and I am trying to dress as accurately as I can to a queen in 1735. Is there anything that would be very important to include in my queen's costume from 1735?

Answer: I think the question is - what would be doable? Royalty of that time period wore very expensive fabrics like silk. Look at fashions of the period to see a beautiful dress that you could actually make. The styles were complicated so that should be something to think about as well. You may not want to be too authentic with materials as the cost would be significant.

May I suggest a book - "Making Georgian and Regency Costumes for Women" by Lindsey Holmes.

© 2017 Dolores Monet

Comments

Lily on August 21, 2019:

Who was the fashion designers of the mid 18th century?

Dolores Monet (author) from East Coast, United States on April 12, 2019:

Hi Miro - the grand, super fancy outfits portrayed in many painting show garments worn for court or special occasions. Simpler version of the same styles were worn for day wear, walking, and riding. Working people wore simplified versions of the grander styles and were made of cheaper materials. Working women wore aprons to protect their dresses.

The other information you requested is in the article. For more information read one of the books suggested above.

Miro on April 11, 2019:

Hello Dolores, I'm a school student and im school we're writing about clothes so I chose to write about the dresses and gowns of the 1700s. I have some questions that I'd like to ask.

First of all How were the dresses usually built, coursettes? ect.

And also i would like to know, did they always wear these excessive and "over the top" dresses?

Dolores Monet (author) from East Coast, United States on March 02, 2019:

Hi Kimberly - a type of cloth called jeane, a cotton/wool blend was worn by Italian sailors even before the 1700s. Serge de Nimes was produced in France of cotton. In the late 1700s, denim was produced for working people in the USA. But these were not quite the jeans we know today. Rivets were added in the American West for miners in 1872. Zippers were not invented until the late 1920s.

Sandals as we know them were not used by fashionable people in the 1700s as too much of the foot was exposed.

Girls dressed in modified styles that women wore. In portraits they almost look like miniature adults, but that was for special occasions. Day wear for girls would be somewhat more comfortable and were not worn with corsets.

Kimberly on March 01, 2019:

Did women wear sandals back in the 1700s? What did girls wear back then in the 1700s? Was there a such thing as jeans in the late Seventeen Hundreds?

Dolores Monet (author) from East Coast, United States on April 09, 2018:

Hi Liv - casual clothing worn around the home would be simple with no wide panniers and less embellishment.

Peasant women wore shorter skirts, above the ankles. Fabrics for peasant wear were coarse weave linen, occasionally cotton (prints), and wool. Natural colors were easier to manage and cheaper to purchase than most bright colors. The color blue, for instance, made of woad washed out and faded. Linen for the common folk was ecru or natural linen color. Yellow was an easily found and afforded dye. Rust, subtle pink, and off shades of red were common. Women wore head covering, a coif with a scarf, or wide brimmed hat. Aprons and smocks protected clothing. Clogs kept feet dry.

You can find images of peasant costume on Google images. So many are very attractive. Mixing prints was popular. Of course how peasants and working people dressed varied greatly by country.

liv on April 07, 2018:

what sort of things did people wear casually back then? What kind of things were the peasants into?

Dolores Monet (author) from East Coast, United States on October 11, 2017:

Hi Natalie - my fashion articles are a general overview about styles worn by the elite. If you are going to write historic fiction, I would recommend reading several books on the subject including general history as well as costume history. I would like to address clothing that regular people wore but more images of the elite are available. Thanks!

Natalie Frank from Chicago, IL on October 10, 2017:

Great article! I have been doing a little of writing lately set in different time periods.and have gotten caught up in the research (what did we ever do before Google?) This article is very interesting and will be suite useful for a piece I'm writing. Thanks also for thwhen follow. I hope to see your comments on some of my artocles.

Dolores Monet (author) from East Coast, United States on October 03, 2017:

Hi Dora - while they may have endured extreme discomfort in order to look good at ceremonial occasions, I can't actually admire them. France, at the time, was in economic duress. The elite partied on and lived lavishly despite the struggles of regular people leading to a bloody revolution. It did not work out well for the aristocracy! Thanks!

Dora Weithers from The Caribbean on September 29, 2017:

I admire the women of the era you describe for their commitment to tradition and culture. They stood for something despite the cost and the discomfort. I also admire today's women who mange to combine standard with comfort. I like your fashion posts. Thank you.

Dolores Monet (author) from East Coast, United States on September 29, 2017:

Hi Nicole - the featured costumes were not for comfort but intended to display social status. Regular folks may have attempted to imitate the looks to some extent, but common people dressed in a more sensible manner. They had to in order to work. "Undress" signified much more comfortable garments worn at home.

Dolores Monet (author) from East Coast, United States on September 29, 2017:

Hi Doug - they weren't much on hair washing in those days. I am going to add a bit more info to the makeup section. It's so hard to keep this from running too long. Small patches similar to what was later called "beauty marks" could hide scars too. Pale faces indicated that the wearer was noble and did not work outdoors.

Kitty Fields from Summerland on September 29, 2017:

Dolores - I always enjoy your historical fashion posts. I'm a big history buff, and I went to school for fashion design...so these are right up my alley! That being said, I don't know how these women were ever comfortable or cool. LOL

Doug West from Missouri on September 28, 2017:

From what I have read, the wigs on men where because they didn't have hair or they hadn't washed it in a while (a long while) and the face paint was to cover their small pox scares. Sound right?

Dolores's interest in fashion history dates from her teenage years when vintage apparel was widely available in thrift stores.

Hallmarks of '80s Fashion

Women's fashions of the 1980s juxtaposed glamour with casual. Gym clothes became streetwear, and design trends were influenced by the underclass. Exaggerated hairstyles, puffy sleeves, ruffles, jewel tones, and padded shoulders mixed with new style concepts created a wild mix of costumes.

After the elite lost their hold on fashion in the 1960s and 1970s, the arrival of Ronald Reagan in the United States and Princess Diana in Great Britain heralded a new influence of the upper crust.

Popular TV shows like Dallas, Dynasty, and Miami Vice showcased luxurious lifestyles of the rich. People started flocking to indoor malls as shopping, in and of itself, became entertainment. The music culture of the South Bronx encouraged inhabitants of poverty-stricken areas to wear designer labels with large, prominent logos.

At the same time, streetwear of the lower-class counter cultures continued to influence punk style. Ragged, torn, mismatched garments fastened with out-sized zippers and safety pins edged onto the runway. Couture designers started creating garments for royalty as well as rock stars. Exercise clothes became regular daywear, and professional women paired business suits with sneakers.

Into the mix, throw avant-garde unstructured garments and graffiti-print dresses, and you have the wildly diverse look of the 1980s.

Popular Styles of the '80s

The following fashion and cultural styles were either born or became mainstream in the '80s. Some have withstood the test of time and are still seen today.

• Punk
• Goth
• New Romantics or New Wave
• Preppy and Yuppie
• Sportswear Inspired

Transition From the 1970s to 1980s

As the decade unfolded, people who were sick of the 1970s austerity welcomed the concept of wealth and success. Though tough in some quarters, like having 12% interest mortgages, others scooped up big bucks on the high-interest rates. The glorification of financial success brought us the power suit and evening elegance.

The archetype of financial success, the professional businesswoman, wore suits with enormous shoulder pads tapering down to slim short skirts. While the '80s saw the dawn of women wearing all black, women's suits of the mid-decade featured vivid, jewel tones often paired in unusual color combinations.

Blouses came in men's tailored styles with large collars or with stand up collars edged in tiny ruffles ala a Gibson Girl. Scalloped collars called pie crust collars moved from the New Romantic club scene to the mainstream population thanks to Princess Diana.

Boldly printed tunic tops paired with tight, stretch, stirrup pants and short, slouchy boots. On the other hand, parachute and harem pants featured tight waistbands and large, billowing legs caught at the ankle with elastic or banded cuffs.

Evening wear vamped up a luxurious femininity with dresses and gowns festooned with sequins and spangles. The pouf dress fit tightly at the top but ballooned at the hip. Mini crinolines offered short versions of a 1950s hourglass figure.

Styles Blend Across Socio-Economic Classes

Due to the austerity caused by an economic downturn in the 1970s, haute couture lost some of its influence. In order to increase revenue, fashion houses created new forms of income.

American and European designers created styles for the ready-to-wear market through franchised boutiques and licensing agreements for perfumes, jewelry, handbags, clothing, and home linens. One no longer had to be uber-rich to afford Versace, Prada, or Dolce and Gabbana. Fashion shows displayed wild, over the top outfits as art statements, and offered diluted versions for public consumption.

Youth culture streetwear increased the style influence from the bottom up. The high end looked to urban youth for inspiration creating a concept of style tribes.

The Hip Hop movement, which emerged from New York's South Bronx, created a sense of ghetto fabulousness as young African American people flocked to purchase designer jeans, sneakers, oversized gold jewelry, and clothing that featured large designer logos.

Women wore Gloria Vanderbilt dark denim jeans, midriff tops, and mini skirts. Braids, hair weaves, and fake fingernails became popular. The Hip Hop movement brought us the concept of tracksuits as streetwear, oversized clothing, and baseball caps worn backwards.

Punk Style

The punk movement of the 1970s continued its influence on fashion. A style of urban poor, white people soon appeared at fashion shows. The mismatched, unkempt look of ripped pants and ragged shirts, and the bold look of bondage attire (think dog collars, leather straps, and chains) found a place on the runway. Safety pins, oversized zippers, and graffiti prints appeared on dresses worn by the middle class.

The punk style for women included combat boots worn with skirts, fingerless gloves, fishnet stockings, black lace, and unnaturally colored hair. Hair cuts often featured partially shaved areas and an asymmetrical look. Multiple piercings allowed women to wear several pairs of earrings.

Goths or Gothic Style

Styles tribes often blend at the edges with other influences. Elements of punk colored a more elaborate style called goth, short for Gothic. Goths wore black clothing with a vampire-like tone. Female goths wore long dresses trimmed in black lace, long cloaks, and long coats. Heavily made-up faces with black lipstick were framed by black dyed hair. Pale face makeup was accentuated with heavy eyeliner. Young women also painted their fingernails black. The goth aesthetic from the '80s continues today, with the style mostly remaining unchanged.

New Romantics Also Known as New Wave

The New Romantics drew influence from Goths, punks, the '80s penchant for pouf, as well as from historic styles. Also called New Wave, the exaggerated styled recalled Victorian military dress jackets, fantasy pirates, and other influences from around the world.

Exaggerated or asymmetrical hairstyles framed pale faces with odd makeup like bright slashes of rouge.

Within this look, one could mix and match elements of 1930s Hollywood, Scottish tartans, and Regency historic. The New Romantics made dressing up fun again while combining dramatic flair with a sense of humor and fantasy.

Preppy and Yuppie Style

As a counterbalance to the sometimes extravagant look of new artistic street fashions, a more conservative style became popular. Preppies based their look on prep school uniforms with oxford shirts, La Coste polo shirts, chino pants, and sweaters worn around the shoulders. Women's hair hung long and straight, often worn with hair clips or headbands, and their faces featured very little or natural makeup.

Yuppies, young urban professionals or grown-up preppies, wore conservative, tailored suits and business attire. Ralph Lauren offered these traditional styles along with garments that hinted at America's pastoral past.

Sportswear Inspired Daywear

Thanks to the exercise and aerobics movements of the '80s, as well as Hip Hop culture and the much-loved film Dirty Dancing, garments formerly seen only at the gym edged into the street. Leg warmers, once worn only by dancers, became common and came in plain colors or stripes.

Tracksuits with zippered jackets became the iconic uniform of stay-at-home mothers, a style that extended far beyond the decade. The outfits later appeared in velvet and in feminine pastels.

The shell suit was made in swishy, bright-colored nylon with elastic cuffed loose, matching pants. Sweatshirts and pants became, sadly, common streetwear. US designer Norma Kamali incorporated sweatsuit knits into her designs for skirts, dresses, and jackets.

Baseball caps became the predominant form of headgear. Young women used the opening at the back of the caps to sprout ponytails.

Team logo shirts were worn by males and females alike. T-shirts with surf brand logos were worn by people who never saw the ocean. Sneakers and running shoes grew in popularity. The New York transit strike in 1980 forced women to walk to work. In order to walk long distances in comfort, women began to wear sneakers with their business attire, carrying dress shoes in bags. The strike ended but the style remained.

Vans, flat slip-on type sneakers worn by the skateboard crowd, became popular as well.

Style Icons of the 1980s

Princess Diana

When Lady Diana Spencer married Charles, the Prince of Wales in 1981, people embraced her with a frenzy. After the British royalty had become inconsequential in the world of fashion, suddenly there was a new royal princess with the stature of a model. As a member of a group of young women called the "Sloane Rangers," Princess Di came prepared to influence style wearing Hermes scarves, Liberty prints, and low heeled shoes.

She appeared at public functions in clothing created by British designers and became an effective marketing tool for British couture. She created a style that mixed elements of the New Romantic club scene with a traditional, British country look. Her sweetness, grace, and affinity to promote causes influenced young women worldwide.

Michael Jackson

The King of Pop, offered an androgynous look for young men and women alike. Tight pants worn with loafers and white shirts hinted at a preppy style, while his bright red jacket with its large zippers hinted at New Wave.

Vivienne Westwood

Vivienne Westwood was a British fashion designer who drew inspiration from Punk, Goth, and New Romantic groups while influencing them as well. Her Pirate collection of 1981–82 offered puffy shirts with large collars and 18th-century style military jackets. Her Buffalo Girls collection of 1982–83 drew on Peruvian traditional patterns colored in shades of brown. Her designs brought a theatrical edge to fashion, opening the doors to more avant-garde styles.

Madonna

Pop singer Madonna influenced fashion with her dramatic performance wear showcased in the movie Desperately Seeking Susan. Wearing multiple ropes of long beads, black lace gloves, and mesh knit tops, Madonna gave us underwear worn as outerwear with her obvious bras and corsets. Capitalizing on her stardom, Madonna licensed her own brand of clothing and accessories.

John Galliano

John Galliano erupted onto the scene when he created his own label in 1984. An icon of the New Romantic movement, Galliano offered theatrical, avant-garde clothing melding historic themes with contemporary design. His bias cut dresses and skirts offered a soft, flowing grace. His fantastical and dramatic designs offered a kind of campy romance and earned him British Designer of the Year in 1987.

Japanese Designers

When Rey Kawabuko's war-painted models marched down the runway in Paris in 1981, the style-conscious took note. Her "Destroy" collection introduced outfits that were as comfortable as they were outlandish. The stark, modernist collection featured a monochromatic blend of black, charcoal, and gray. The unusual cuts thrilled some and horrified others.

Japanese designers like Issey Miyake and Kenzo Takada offered unstructured garments that hung loose on the body and incorporated an asymmetrical look. Kansai Yamamoto created costumes for David Bowie's Ziggy Stardust.

The oversized garments featured little in the way of detail or embellishments and quickly caught on bringing an air of the avant-garde into mainstream fashion.

Hair, Makeup, and Accessories

• Hairstyles: After the simple, toned down hair and makeup of the previous decade, '80s styles became more flamboyant. By mid-decade, women's hair grew large. The preferred style included masses of waves, curls, and volume. Perms puffed out straight hair. Women wore hair clips to contain their hairdos. Sweatbands were worn horizontally across the forehead for exercise or physical activity. Preppies wore their headbands on top of the head. Scrunchies were fabric-covered elastic bands used to pull outsized hairdos away from the face.
• Makeup: Pale complexions replaced tans on Caucasian women, a look taken to extremes by goths. The subdued eye makeup of the '70s gave way to more pronounced eyeliner, mascara, and eye shadow. More colorful, deeper toned lipstick was often highlighted by lipliner.
• Nails: Nail polish came in a rich variety of colors with the younger set sometimes painting a different color on each nail. The black polish favored by goths and punks worked its way into the mainstream.
• Accessories: Scarves and shawls were draped over jackets and coats as a favorite fashion accessory.
• Jewelry: Rows of earrings lined each ear in another instance of punk styles going mainstream. Multiple layers of necklaces of mixed beads and charms were popular. Girls often wore their own names engraved on a metal plate hung on a chain. Pendants featuring designer logos were also a fashion trend of the time.
• Glasses: Eyeglasses and sunglasses featured huge lenses.

Further Reading

Back to Our Future: How the 1980s Explain the World We Live in Now by David Sirota, Ballentine Books, New York, NY 2011.

Survey of Historic Costume by Phyllis G. Tortora and Keith Eubank;Fairchild Publications, Inc.; New York, NY; 2005

Costume and Fashion a Concise History by James Laver; Thames and Hudson Ltd.; London UK; 2002

Fifty Fashion Looks That Changed the 1980s by Paula Reed

80s Fashion From Club to Catwalk by Sonnet Stanfill

Elle Style: The 1980s by Francois Baudot

© 2017 Dolores Monet

Comments

Dolores Monet (author) from East Coast, United States on September 14, 2018:

hi Ethel - yes, those shoulder pads were a bit much but then 1980s fashion was all a bit much. I kind of hated how everyone wore sweat suits everywhere. It just looked sloppy. Thanks!

Ethel Smith from Kingston-Upon-Hull on September 05, 2018:

Great in depth look at that period of fashion. Some weird and wacky stuff mixed with some classics. I remember those ridiculously big shoulder pads all too well

Shyron E Shenko from Texas on June 05, 2018:

Dolores, this is amazing, my friend and I were looking for dresses to wear to the disco dance at our senior center, wish we had found your article.

Blessings my friend

Dolores Monet (author) from East Coast, United States on August 10, 2017:

Hi Peggy - I find it amazing that buying ripped jeans has been popular for so long. Sure I remember elbow patches! They are still out there and in 2016, someone in a WSJ article claimed that elbow patches add "a quiet complexity" to his look.

Peggy Woods from Houston, Texas on August 09, 2017:

This was a fun trip down memory lane. It is fascinating how fashions change through the decades and some trends seem to last much longer than others.

The ragged jeans & other pants with holes in all sorts of places has really become popular today. I guess it is an exaggerated style from the past. I wonder if patches on elbows will once again be popular? Remember that one?

Dolores Monet (author) from East Coast, United States on August 07, 2017:

Hi Glenis Rix - I love that song. Ray Davies wrote that song and performed it with his band, the Kinks in 1966 spoofing the fashion scene in London. I would love to see a Vivienne Westwood exhibition. Her clothes are so interesting.

Glen Rix from UK on August 06, 2017:

'She's a Dedicated Follower of Fashion'. Did you ever here that song? Could be about us. I went to an exhibition of Vivienne Westwood's work through the years some years ago, in Sheffield, England - it started with her punk t-shirts and moved on to her stupendous ball gowns. If you ever visit Paris, don't miss the museum of haute couture.

Dolores Monet (author) from East Coast, United States on July 30, 2017:

Hi MsDora - we never realize, at the time, what fashions or fads are going to last the test of time. Thanks for reading!

Dora Weithers from The Caribbean on July 28, 2017:

Dolores, I like these articles in which you chronicle the history of fashion. There are so many "aha" moments in your report when we recognize for example, when fake nails became popular and the baseball cap became the tool for showing the pony tail. Well Done!

Dolores Monet (author) from East Coast, United States on July 27, 2017:

Hi Blond Logic - I remember seeing people wearing those horrible gray sweat suits everywhere. It looked awful! Though I love casual clothing, it can be taken way too far. I can't believe the concept of paying big money for ripped jeans is still popular.

Dolores Monet (author) from East Coast, United States on July 27, 2017:

Hi FlourishAnyway - for some time I thought that the whole 80s thing was just silly. But looking back, I find it fascinating. So much of how we dress today is influenced by the 80s.

FlourishAnyway from USA on July 26, 2017:

This was a wonderful trip don't memory lane, from jellies to parachute pants (didn't do either). I did do Madonna style clothes, Gloria Vanderbilt jeans, preppy izod shirts with the collar up, and big hair.

Mary Wickison from Brazil on July 26, 2017:

This was fascinating. I have often wondered where some of the fashion trends started. The 80's seemed to have pushed out many of the fashion ideas we see today.

Isn't it funny that some last and some don't, such as a baseball cap being worn backwards we still see, but not shoulder pads.

Perhaps it is because casual wear is so popular because everyone dresses down, it seems.

Frances has many years' experience writing about exhibitions in art galleries and museums.

Celebrating the Work of Cristobal Balenciaga

Balenciaga: Shaping Fashion, an exhibition at London's V&A Museum, celebrates the work of Cristobel Balenciaga. The exhibition looks especially at the designer's output from the 1950s and '60s, which many design historians regard as being his most creative and exciting period.

Sponsored by American Express, the exhibition is curated by Cassie Davies-Strodder, curator of 20th and 21st century fashion collections at the V&A. The display marks the 80th anniversary of the opening of Balenciaga's fashion house in Paris and the centenary of the opening of his first fashion house in San Sebastian.

Features of the Exhibition

The exhibition features more than 120 items, many shown side-by-side with x-rays revealing hitherto unseen design secrets. The show also features garments by designers who worked with Balenciaga as well as items designed by modern-day designers who look to him for their inspiration. The display is enhanced by animated patterns and short films showing design processes uncovering the hidden details that make this designer's work so extraordinary.

About Balenciaga: A Revolutionary Fashion Leader

Speaking recently, Cassie Davies-Strodder described Cristobal Balenciaga as “one of the most influential fashion designers of the 20th century.” Highly respected by contemporaries such as Coco Chanel and Hubert de Givenchy, he was renowned for his adventurous use of fabric and innovative cutting. Known as “the master” of haute couture, he set the tone for late 20th century fashion. He introduced the tunic, the sack, the 'baby doll' and the shift dress, all styles that remain popular in various forms today.

Early Life

The son of a seamstress, Cristobel Balenciaga was born in 1985 in Getaria, northern Spain. At the age of twelve, he began an apprenticeship with a tailor in the nearby fashionable town of San Sebastian.

Fashion Houses

Ten years later, in 1917, he opened his first fashion house there. His training gave him a very special advantage over most other couturiers: He was skilled in every stage of the making process, from designing and cutting to tailoring and dressmaking. His early creations were inspired by French designers including Coco Chanel and Madeleine Vionnet, both of whom were close friends.

Following the success of the San Sebastian fashion house, Balenciaga opened a second fashion house in Paris on the Avenue George V. He remained in Paris for the remainder of his fifty-year career, but he always maintained strong links to Spain, where he established a sister label under the name Eisa.

Highlights of the Exhibition

The display includes ensembles created for Hollywood actress Ava Gardner, hats and dresses made for 1960s socialite and fashion icon Gloria Guinness, and garments worn by Mona von Bismarck. Von Bismarck was one of the world's wealthiest women, and she commissioned everything from Balenciaga, ranging from gardening shorts to ball gowns.

Interview With Stephanie Wood, V&A Research Curator

Stephanie Wood, a V&A Research Assistant, spoke exclusively about the exhibition to Frances Spiegel.

Frances Spiegel (FS): Firstly, can you tell me about the V&A's collection?

Stephanie Wood (SW): We're very lucky, we have the largest collection of Cristóbal Balenciaga garments in the UK. Largely the strength of our collection is from the 1950s and 60s which is also the most experimental time in his career. Most of the collection was formed by Cecil Beaton, the society photographer. He went through his little black book of friends and colleagues and asked them to donate or loan to an exhibition that was going on at the time and off the back of that we have the most wonderful and varied collection of Balenciaga pieces.

FS: Many readers will be interested in the actual setting up of the exhibition and the special precautions you have to take because some of these items are incredibly fragile.

SW: It's true. There are a small number of our objects that are very fragile, they're over sixty years old. We have a wonderful curation department and a lot goes into the preparation. Our curators work tirelessly to ensure any item going on display is completely padded. It is completely supported and no part of the item ever touches the mannequin.

FS: During your research did you discover anything that really surprised you?

SW: Yes, one of our pieces, the first ever Balenciaga that we acquired for the collection, is a really beautiful fuchsia-pink dress that has large swathes of fabric that come around the body and gather into a bustle shape at the back. The note that came with the piece said 'our first Balenciaga—what an oddity'.

We never understood what that meant but when we were studying the piece we realised that there are these bizarre ties which we couldn't figure out what to do with. After a lot of research in contemporary magazines from the time we realised that they were probably supposed to be tied around the legs. So this is the first time the garment has ever been displayed in the way it was designed to be worn with the ties around the legs.

FS: Can you tell me about the V&A's collaboration with the artist Nick Veasey?

SW: Yes, we did a collaboration with Nick Veasey, the x-ray artist. He approached the museum and was very keen to x-ray some of the key garments in our collection. He converted an articulated lorry into a mobile x-ray unit which was very exciting. He took a number of our star pieces and x-rayed them. The process was so interesting especially as I'd never dealt with x-ray before.

There were various techniques that we used to create the volume within the dresses so we could get a sense of how the shape worked. There's only certain materials that you can use that don't show up on the x-ray. You can't use any metal or any kind of solid wood so you had to, in a number of cases, pad the dresses with balloons to create the volume of the sleeves, the skirts and things like that.

FS: If somebody actually said you could take any one of these pieces home with you and keep it and wear it and love it, which one would it be?

SW: It would probably be the envelope dress because for me its the distillation of all of his ideas he was exploring throughout his career. It's the epitome of his greatest contribution to fashion which was revolutionizing womenswear of the time. That's my favourite piece, it's just the most abstract shape, with the very narrow hem and the very wide shoulders. You really can't see any real shape of the woman wearing it below.

FS: I can't imagine what it would be like to walk in either!

SW: Well, only two were ever sold and one of the clients returned it because she couldn't figure out how to go to the bathroom in it. So it's not the most practical garment.

Balenciaga: Shaping Fashion—Events and Publication

The exhibition is accompanied by a new V&A publication and a series of related events, including courses and creative workshops. Further details can be obtained directly from the V&A.

Finding the Victoria and Albert Museum

© 2017 Frances Spiegel

I am a writer with special expertise in textiles, fabrics, printing, and dyeing.

Here is a list of the most commonly used fabrics in the fashion industry in alphabetical order, covering M to Z.

Madras

It is a lightweight, fine, plain-weave yarn, dyed fabric that is characterized by large checks.

Used in:

• Shirts
• Dresses
• Blouses

Matelassé

This is a double fabric that has a quilted appearance, which is done by the use of wadding threads and a tightly bound weave.

Used in:

• Womenswear
• Coats
• Furnishings

Muslin

It is a plain weave, lightweight fabric, usually made from cotton.

Organdy

This is an extremely fine, delicate, semi-transparent, lightweight fabric characterized by a permanent stiff finish.

Used in:

• Dresses
• Blouses

Organza

This is a thin, transparent, plain weave fabric with a stiff finish, usually made from silk yarn.

Used in:

• Formal wear
• Blouses
• Interlinings

Oxford

Oxford is a plain weave cotton fabric which has two warp ends woven as one.

Used in:

• Shirts
• Blouses

Poplin

This is a plain weave cotton fabric made by using a dense warp over a coarse weft, which gives a design of fine weft way ribs.

Used in:

• Shirts
• Blouses
• Jackets
• Trousers
• Coats

Rib Jersey

Rib jersey is a weft-knitted double-sided fabric in which two adjacent wales of face loops alternate with two adjacent wales of back loops in a series.

Used in:

• Collars of t-shirts
• Cuffs

Seersucker

Seersucker is a cotton fabric characterized by a crinkled appearance. The fabric tends to have alternating puckered surfaces and relatively flat surfaces, which can be created by finishes or differential warp tensions.

Used in:

• Blouses
• Shirts
• Dresses

Serge

It is a fabric with a two-up and two-down 45-degree diagonal twill weave. It is a medium-weight fabric and generally made with wool. It has a shiny appearance and can also be made with cotton.

Used in:

• Suits
• Costumes
• Linings

Sharkskin

Sharkskin is a right-hand twill weave fabric often made with wool, generally with two colors (one in warp and one in weft) to give it a scaly appearance.

Used in:

• Suitings

Single Jersey

This is a weft-knitted fabric characterized by plain stitches throughout the fabric.

Used in:

• Nightwear
• Blouses
• T-shirts

Taffeta

Taffeta is a closely woven plain weave fabric which is made from filament yarns. It has a higher density of warp yarns than weft, thus giving the fabric a weft-way rib appearance.

Used in:

• Evening wear
• Linings

Terry Cloth

It is a woven warp pile fabric with uncut loops on both sides of the fabric, and it's manufactured on a dobby loom.

Used in:

• Towels
• Robes

Tweed

This is a woolen, woven fabric made from coarse, irregular yarns, with contrasting warp and weft yarns.

Used in:

• Formal wear
• Outerwear
• Jackets
• Coats

Velour

This is a soft, closely woven fabric with a short cut-pile formed by raising or brushing.

Used in:

• Jackets
• Coats

Velvet

Velvet is a cut-pile fabric with a soft, fuzzy appearance.

Used in:

• Furnishings

Voile

Voile is a lightweight, plain weave fabric made from very fine yarns.

Used in:

• Dresses
• Blouses

Waffle Cloth

Generally made of cotton, it is a honeycomb weave that is made on dobby loom.

Used in:

• Kitchen cloth

Whipcord

It is a compact, medium-weight, warp-face twill fabric that's usually made from wool. It may be made from cotton or rayon.

Used in:

• Suits
• Coats

Link to the First Part (A to L) of This List

• List of Most Commonly Used Fabrics in Fashion (A to L) – Part 1
  This is the Part 1 of this list of commonly used fabrics in the fashion industry. If you want to know more about fabrics, make sure to check it out!

© 2017 PGupta0919

I am a writer with special expertise in textiles, fabrics, printing, and dyeing.

Here is a list of the most commonly used fabrics in the fashion industry in alphabetical order from A to L.

Brocade

Brocade is a type of jacquard fabric that is heavily figured. The figure is developed by floating warp threads, weft threads, or both. Often, lustre yarn is used.

Used in:

• Formal wear
• Furnishing

Buckram

This is a stiff fabric which is generally made of cotton or linen. It is loosely woven.

Used as a stiff interlining in:

• Collars
• Cuffs

Cambric

Cambric is a lightweight, closely woven fabric that is generally used in handkerchiefs. It can be given additional stiffening.

Used in:

• Children’s dresses
• Ladies’ garments
• Nightwear

Chambray

It is a lightweight, plain weave cotton woven fabric which has a colored warp and a white weft. This produces a blotchy appearance.

Used in:

• Women’s and children’s garments
• Shirts and sportswear

Chiffon

This is a very lightweight, sheer, delicate fabric. It was originally made of silk yarns, but now even man-made fibres like polyester are being used to manufacture chiffon.

Used in:

• Blouses
• Dresses and gowns

Chintz

It is a highly lustrous plain weave cotton fabric. It is generally finished with calendering to impart lustre.

Used in:

• Furnishing
• Sportswear

Corduroy

It is a cut pile cord fabric, generally made of cotton. The cut fibres form the surface of the fabric. It is a medium-weight fabric.

Used in:

• Bottom wear

Crepe

It is a fabric that is characterized by a crinkled surface. The effect may be produced in a variety of ways, such as chemical or heat treatments, use of S and Z high twist yarns, etc.

Used in:

• Blouses
• Dresses

Damask

Damask is a type of woven fabric that uses mercerized cotton for its construction. Its design is made by interchanging satin and sateen weaves.

Used in:

• Tablecloths
• Bed clothing

Denim

This is a durable woven cotton twill fabric. Originally, it was indigo-dyed, and the warp was yarn-dyed with undyed weft yarn.

Used in:

• Leisure wear
• Workwear

Double Cloth

It is also called double face as it is reversible in nature. Two component fabrics are held together by the means of the following methods: centre-stitching, self-stitching, or interchanging.

Used in:

• Coats
• Dresses
• Jackets
• Furnishings

Duck

It is a closely woven plain weave fabric which is similar to the canvas fabric. Cotton or linen yarns are used to manufacture duck.

Flannel

Flannel is a plain or twill weave fabric that is lightweight or medium-weight, originally made from wool. It might be slightly raised.

Used in:

• Shirts
• Nightwear

Fleece

This is a woven fabric made from woolen yarn that has a raised pile on its surface.

Used in:

• Jackets
• Coats

Georgette

It is a fine, lightweight woven fabric that usually has two S-twisted and two Z-twisted yarns successively in both warp and weft.

Gingham

Gingham is a lightweight, plain weave fabric, usually made from cotton. It is yarn-dyed; the dyed yarns are used to form checks or stripes.

Used in:

• Shirts
• Outerwear

Herringbone

Herringbone is actually a type of twill weave, and the fabric made by this is called herringbone fabric. In this, the twill weave is used to form diagonal lines in the fabric.

Used in:

• Formal wear
• Coats

Interlock

It is a fine, weft-knitted fabric that has good stretch properties and is also reversible.

Used in:

• Dresses
• Blouses
• Underwear
• T-shirts

Lawn

It is a lightweight, plain weave woven fabric generally made up of cotton with very fine yarns. It is generally printed.

Used in:

• Dresses
• Blouses

Hope you liked this compilation.

Link to the Second Part (M to Z) of This List

• List of Most Commonly Used Fabrics in Fashion (M to Z) – Part 2
  This is the Part 2 of this list of commonly used fabrics in the fashion industry. If you want to know more about fabrics, make sure to check it out!

© 2017 PGupta0919

Comments

PGupta0919 (author) on May 17, 2017:

Thank you Magicality LM

Magicality LM on May 17, 2017:

Awesome list. Didn't know half of the English names.

Dolores's interest in fashion history dates from her teenage years when vintage apparel was widely available in thrift stores.

Women's clothing of the 1870s and 1880s was heavily trimmed, ornamental, and draped. The hourglass figure of the mid-19th century gave way to a longer, slimmer silhouette with narrow skirts. Emphasis on the back of the skirt grew from fabric gathered at the rear to the exaggerated, shelf-like bustle of the mid 1880s.

Background

During the 1870s and '80s the Industrial Revolution produced a concept of conspicuous consumption. Capitalism generated a new type of elite and class consciousness. While once status was based on royalty, nobility, and land ownership, a new social elite grew out of industry.

The Victorian concept of morality based on financial success tied self identity with consumption. As mass production increased the availability of products the producers of those goods needed new customers. Advertising, fashion magazines, and department store marketing enticed a materialistic culture to desire novelty, luxury, and ornamentation.

Architecture and interior design looked to historic periods for inspiration. Furniture and buildings reflected and mixed Gothic, Renaissance, Rococo, and Louis XVI styles.

Department stores lured shoppers with lavish displays, creating the concept of shopping as entertainment. Self identity merged with the consumption of increasingly ostentatious products. Combine these new social norms with the ideal of feminine status displayed by immobility and you have the basis for fashions of the Late Victorian era. Elite women did not work. A stiff, rigid posture underscored the lack of movement that separated the upper class from the working class.

Fashions of the period are easily gleaned from photographs, advertising, fashion magazines, and fashion plates. While portraiture and painting does not always reflect styles of the day, many artists depicted what women actually wore. The painter James Tissot depicted women in contemporary costume. August Renoir's paintings reflect the clothing worn by the middle and working class.

Dress of 1870-1878

• Two-piece outfits featured a bodice and skirt. A bodice was a stiff, fitted jacket like garment usually supported with whalebone or steel. The bodice of this period featured a basque which extended below the waist and could reach the knees at the back.(See picture below)
• Tight-fitting sleeves reached 3/4 length or to the wrist. Coat sleeves were fitted and ended in deep cuffs.
• Sleeves were set higher that than earlier when drop shoulders restricted arm movement.
• Skirts usually matched the bodice. Horizontal draping and overskirts required copious amounts of fabric. Overskirts were gathered at the back, supported by a bustle that was attached to a crinoline.
• Many women kept two bodices for every skirt—one for day wear and one for evening. Evening bodices were often off the shoulder with very short or elbow-length sleeves edged with ruffles. Evening bodices also featured more decorative embellishments than for day wear.
• Necklines came in V neck, rounded, or squared styles. More open necklines could be filled with a lace frill or chemisette. Low-neck bodices featured high necks at the back.

1878-1883

The bustle grew small with the introduction of the cuirass. Bodices featured a point below the waist in front and were fitted smoothly over the hips. The skirt grow a long, heavy train. Embellishments appeared low and at the back of the skirt. Narrow skirts made walking difficult, resulting in small, mincing steps. Some skirts featured horizontal draping created with hidden strings and hooks.

1883-1890

• The bustle came back in a big way. A large, shelf-like protrusion at the rear was more exaggerated than the softly draped bustle of the 1870s. Trains mostly disappeared and hemlines ended a few inches above the floor.
• Wrist-length sleeves remained tight. Small puffs developed at the top of the sleeve, a precursor to the balloon like leg-of-mutton sleeves of the 1890s.
• The bodice remained closely fitted with short basques or polonaise styles. This was a longer coat like dress worn open over an underskirt.
• Long, belted blouses hung to the hip.
• High collars worn closely fitted were supported with whale bone and came attached to bodices, dresses, or jackets.

Historical Influences

Polonaise cut bodices and gowns recalled women's fashions of the 1700s. The bodice portion extended below the waistline and hung like a long, open robe or coat. Polonaise could appear as a gown that was cut away in the front, then drawn back over the hips. Some polonaise styles appeared quite gaudy with the under and over dress made of contrasting fabrics, or one printed and one plain fabric. Trim made of one portion decorated the other and vice versa. Some critics complained of the patchwork look and odd arrangement of trim.

Dolly Varden was a polonaise style named after a character in a Charles Dickens novel. Similar to 18th century styles, bright colors and floral patterns came in cotton, chintz, or muslin.

A princess line dress recalls medieval gowns. Full length pieces of fabric are joined to create a straight line without a defined waist. Form is created with darts. A princess dress worn a la polonaise with an overdress draped back towards the rear. Some featured a pattern or different colored front panel.

Tea Gown

Artists of the Aesthetic Movement often designed the clothing worn by their models. The movement, originating in the 1840s saw the mass production brought by the Industrial Revolution as dehumanizing and sought a simpler beauty based on craft and historic styles. The forms and designs introduced by these Pre-Raphaelite artists began to influence women's clothing. The tea gown, born of these softer designs was worn by women at home when they received friends for tea.

Tea gowns were worn without corsets. More comfortable than the standard day wear, tea gowns were loose and often featured loose flowing sleeves.They could be practical or decorated with lace and flounces for a soft, romantic look.

Sportswear

Women increasingly engaged in tennis, croquet, boating, riding, and golf. Tennis costumes were produced in soft knit fabrics called jersey, named after the famous actress, Lillie Langtry, the Jersey Lily (she was born on the British island of Jersey).

Though women did not engage in actual swimming, bathing was a popular summer activity. Bathing costumes consisted of bloomers worn with an overdress, black stockings, and bathing shoes. By the 1880s, bloomers shortened to the knee. By 1885, some bathing costumes were sleeveless.

Hair and Hats

In the 1870s, hair was worn parted at the center and pulled to the back of the head with some curls framing the face. Large braids or long curls hung down the back of the head.

As the silhouette slenderized, hair was worn closer to the head arranged in a tight bun with curls around the edges and at the nape of the neck.

When large configurations of curls hung at the back of the head, hats tilted up or set on front of the head. Some hats set back resting on a chignon.

The back of women's hair often mirrored the back of the skirt. The eruption of large, festooned bustles led women to wear scalpettes or frizzettes which were false hair pieces.

Hats of the period were heavily festooned with ruffles, lace, feathers, and flowers. The early 1880s saw beaded edging on the hat brim. Between 1884 and 1888, the Postilion hat featured a high, flat crown with a narrow brim that turned up on one side or at the back.

Some brims rose to an arched point in front in the late 1880s.

Hats were made of plush, felt, or velvet. Straw hats were popular in summer.

Footwear

While lower heels predominated mid century, heels rose in the 1870s. Shoes and boots sported high heels and pointed toes. Boots reached lower to mid calf. Winter boots were trimmed in fur. Women wore white boots in warmer weather.

Evening shoes or slippers made of white or cream colored leather or satin were sometimes decorated with ribbons or faux flowers.

Stockings matched one's outfit or shoes and could be embellished with embroidery or striped. In the 1870s white silk stocking patterned with tiny designs were popular. Black stockings predominated in the 1880s.

Accessories and Jewlry

• Gloves were an important part of a woman's outfit. Long, elbow length or above the elbow length were worn for evening with short sleeves. Short wrist length gloves appeared with long sleeves.
• Folding fans were a popular accessory of the era. Pretty lace or painted pictures decorated the fan that was supported on tortoise shell, wood, or ivory sticks.
• Parasols protected women's skin from the sun. Many featured ornate handles and long points at the ends. Trimming ran around the edge of the fabric.
• The elite wore brooches, hair combs, necklaces, rings, and bracelets adorned with diamonds, pearls, garnets,rubies, and emeralds set in gold. Less wealthy people wore pearls or garnets as well a faux gems.
• Black jewelry made of jet or black onyx was popular and could be worn during mourning periods when garments were restricted to black following the death of a loved one.
• Tortoise shell appeared as hair combs and was used to create pique in which the shell was inlaid with precious metal.
• The discovery of vast amounts of silver led to the mass marketing of silver jewelry, affordable for the middle class.
• Cameos, those lovely pieces of carved shell or coral, were abundant and worn by the upper and middle class.

Undergarments

Many layers of undergarments made getting dressed quite an ordeal. However, each piece was attractive in cut and fabric with tiny embellishments.

Corsets made of heavy, pieced and starched cambric offered support with bands made of whale baleen or steel . Corsets covered and lifted the lower bust. Tiny waists were emphasized by a flare at the hips. These uncomfortable undergarments accentuated an ideal figure and were viewed as an essential support for women. Dress reformers and health professionals reviled the corset and dangerous as well as unnatural. Exaggerated claims blamed this ubiquitous undergarment for miscarriage, cancer, epilepsy, and nervous hysteria.

Corset covers hid the stiff lines of the corset.

An underbodice was like a sheer, pretty undershirt that ended at the waist. Worn for warmth or modesty under a sheer dress or bodice, underbodices featured trim at the top which could be seen when wearing low necked bodices.

A chemisette was like a dickey. The sheer, lacy, delicate garment worn with a low necked bodice could change the look of an outfit. In those days women did not own as many garments as they do today so enjoyed slight changes to add variety to their wardrobes.

Drawers tied at the waist with legs ending below the knee. Edging at the bottom was simple, featuring lace, embroidery, or ribbons. Like the drawers of the past, drawers of the 1870s and 80s had an open crotch.

A combination was a shoulder to knee garment with legs worn under a dress instead of a chemise and drawers. Made of wool for winter, cotton or linen in summer, this garment proved less bulky than wearing several undergarments.

The bustle provided support for dresses and skirts that exaggerated the rear. Horizontal ruffles of stiffened material and horsehair pads tied around the waist. Bustles also appeared as long, spiraling coils worn horizontally, hoops sewn into cambric, or braided and netted wire. The Langtry bustle could collapse for ease when sitting.

Outerwear

Capes and cloaks of the mid 19th century gave way to coats and jackets. Jackets worn tight across the upper back could have a loose or tight front and ended just below the waist.

Coats worn knee length or longer were designed and cut to accommodate bustled skirts. Sleeves featured wide, turned back cuffs.

The pelisse was a robe like garment that fell 3/4 length or reached the floor. Often high waisted, the pelisse was trimmed with fur.

An ulster coat was a log, belted coat with a removable shoulder cape and hood.

Chesterfields were slender, tailored coasts similar to menswear. They featured small, velvet collars.

© 2017 Dolores Monet

Comments

Dolores Monet (author) from East Coast, United States on September 09, 2019:

Hi Katie - I am glad that you enjoyed my article. I have written articles on the history of fashion and often include historical perspectives on how clothing reflects the political and social mores of an era. But mostly it's about the clothes. You can see some of my other articles in the sidebar at the top right.

Katie Vandyck on September 07, 2019:

The first part of your article that describes the change in social hierarchies and the consequent concentration on identity as being defined by you HAVE rather than how well born you are, is as well expressed a description of how the Industrial Revolution brought about the curse of over-consumption as I've ever seen. Brilliant. Thank you Dolores. The rest of the article is very enjoyable too, and so helpful. Such good work. I found the part about Tissot and his realistic depiction of late 19th century women's clothing particularly useful. You written any other articles, or books? With best wishes, Katie

Dolores Monet (author) from East Coast, United States on June 30, 2017:

Peggy - love the old looks too but they were so uncomfortable. Of course the heavy clothing and fancy bustles were used more by the upper class. Women who did any kind of work had to wear clothing they could move in.

Peggy Woods from Houston, Texas on June 29, 2017:

I love viewing paintings of that era but cannot imagine having to dress that way. It is interesting how fashions, architecture and interior design all seemed to blend.

You have assembled great photos to illustrate the fashions of that era. I'm happy that I do not have to worry about buying a collapsible Langtry bustle. Ha!

Dolores Monet (author) from East Coast, United States on May 05, 2017:

Hi Sweetie Pie - I love the old outfits too. They are so beautiful even when they seem ridiculous like the giant bustles. Thanks!

SweetiePie from Southern California, USA on May 04, 2017:

I love looking at art and photos of fashion from that time, but would not want to wear it. Funny how the large derrière seems to be making a comeback, but now more via fitness and squats.

Dolores Monet (author) from East Coast, United States on May 02, 2017:

Hi Bill - well that's good because you'd probably look a bit silly in a bustle!

Dolores Monet (author) from East Coast, United States on May 01, 2017:

Hi Blond Logic - I am so glad to live in an era when you can pretty much wear what you want. Back then the servants and working people dressed more comfortably so they could move around. Corsets must have been like torture. Lead was used less in the 1870s and 80s as makeup was considered vulgar and only hints of color were achieved through the use of lip salves, many of which were homemade. Lead was used to whiten the face in the 1700s and earlier.

Mary Wickison from Brazil on April 25, 2017:

They are so elegant and elaborate.

With all that fabric and cinched in waist, I can see why fainting occurred more then than now.

Plus makeup with lead...

I wonder what history will say about the fashions of today.

Fabulous images and information.

Ann Carr from SW England on April 25, 2017:

What a charming hub, Dolores! I love the way you link in the historical and social details as well as the other fashions of hairstyles, shoes etc. It makes the whole thing so interesting.

How on earth did they ever sit down in those bustles? Someone else could sit on the one in that c1885 picture!

Fashion styles are always so intriguing and you always do them proud.

Ann

Dolores Monet (author) from East Coast, United States on April 25, 2017:

Hi FlourishAnyway - I used to have a black lace boned bodice from the late 1880s or early 90s. I was so skinny then that it actually fit. Sadly, it wandered off as do the things we have in our youth. Wish I still had it. Those boots sound awesome. Thanks!

Dolores Monet (author) from East Coast, United States on April 25, 2017:

Hi simplehappylife - me neither. They could not bend in those corsets. But at home they could wear a tea gown so they could actually move. Fake hair pieces have been around for ages! I love the boots too. Now those I could see wearing! Glad you enjoyed!

simplehappylife on April 24, 2017:

1. I'm so glad current customs don't require us to wear as many layers as these poor women had to wear. Imagine the Summers! LOL

2. I had no idea that fake hair pieces have been used for this long (other than wigs, of course). I truly thought that was a fad of our modern times.

3. I love those black boots. So pretty :)

Thanks for the fun read!

FlourishAnyway from USA on April 24, 2017:

I love the Victorian style of clothing. Not so much on all the hairstyles and I'd sure hate to wear one of those bathing suits, but this was a real treat of an article. I have a pair of antique lace-up black boots from the era and have often wished I had a lovely dress from this era to display in my home.

Dolores's interest in fashion history dates from her teenage years when vintage apparel was widely available in thrift stores.

• Simple lines reflected a more active lifestyle for young women
• Mass production and electrified factories led to the availability of cheaper garments
• The shirtwaist was the new day wear staple.
• Suits became popular for women.
• Hair was worn in sleek, puffy up-dos.

Women's fashions of the 1890s epitomized a new kind of woman. Romance was juxtaposed with practicality in sleek new styles. An hourglass silhouette defined the feminine form, and women's clothing lost some of the restrictive aspects and over-ornamentation of the earlier Victorian era. The aging queen, once a symbol of all that was socially desirable, began to look quaint, becoming a symbol of everything old-fashioned.

The Aesthetic and Reform movements of the mid-1800s crept into popular culture. Women wanted clothing that was less restrictive than in the past. This was due to a number of new ideas that liberated women. New health concepts encouraged women to become more physically active. More women entered the workplace, went to college, and engaged in social issues than ever before. Women's garments reflected these popular new pursuits.

Historic Overview

The 1890s was an era Mark Twain christened "The Gilded Age," satirizing a troubled society rife with poverty over which stretched a veneer of false luster. Also called the Belle Epoque in France or the Gay '90s for its new sense of fun, the 1890s opened the door to the modern age.

The Panic of 1893 closed banks and threw people out of work. Wealth flowed upward as the richest 10% owned 3/4 of the US wealth. A steady stream of European immigrants in search of better wages led to the opening of New York's Ellis Island.

The 1890s saw the rise of the ready-to-wear garment industry and the rise of labor unions. It ushered in new concepts for entertainment, travel, and technology. The 1890s heralded the first moving pictures and the earliest automobiles. The birth of Ragtime music underscored a sense of frivolity and fun. Brilliant electric lights of the Chicago World's Fair in 1893 and amusement parks like Baltimore's Electric Park paved the way toward the electronic age.

The widespread use of bicycles offered young women a new independence and mobility while suffragettes fought for women's right to vote and questioned a patriarchal culture.

The Garment Industry

The well-to-do of the USA traveled to Paris for haute couture. Some wealthy and upper middle class women had their clothing made by dressmakers or hired their own personal seamstresses who created garments using sewing machines.

By the 1890s, electricity was used in garment factories, fueling machines that cut through many layers of fabric. The piece work system created a demand for unskilled workers as each worker was responsible for only one step in the production of a garment. Mass produced garments were cheaper than hand tailored clothes, showing up in department stores and mail order catalogs.

Women led more active life styles so had less time for sewing, creating a greater demand for ready-to-wear clothes. And new simplified garment designs made them easier to produce than the ornately draped, padded, ruffled, pleated, gathered, and heavily embellished dresses of the 1870s and 80s.

Skirts and Dresses of the 1890s

By 1890 the bustle and ornate skirt drapery was in decline. While skirts and dresses had some pleating at the rear, the emphasis on the back of the skirt gradually diminished. Gored skirts were long and tight at the waist. Fabric cut in a long triangle with the top cut off created a slim waistline so skirts fit smoothly over the hips, the flared out in an inverted tulip shaped bell.

Some skirts featured bands of buckram or heavy linen around the hem. The hem band enabled women to easily repair a damaged hem. Trains were popular and even worn on the streets though dress reformers argued against the unhygienic practice of dragging one's clothing through dirty streets.

Though fashion plates depict women wearing floor length hemlines, photographs of women at work, or engaged in physical activities show shorter hemlines.

Daytime and Evening Wear

For day, women usually wore two piece outfits consisting of a skirt and bodice or shirtwaist. A bodice was a tight upper body garment often supported with built in whalebone. A shirtwaist is similar to a man's shirt, but with added embellishments. Day wear shirts and blouses featured long sleeves.

One piece gowns were worn for evening attire. Large puffy sleeves ended at the elbow. When the size of day wear sleeves diminished, so too did the sleeves of evening gowns. Evening dresses featured low necklines which could be rounded, V neck, or square necked. Lace was popular for decoration and many gowns were made entirely of lace.

The Shirtwaist

The shirtwaist was a hot commodity of the 1890s. Entire factories ran on the production of shirtwaists. This day wear staple featured a high neck, often trimmed with ruching, ruffles, ribbons, or lace. A shirtwaist differed from the bodice of earlier times. A bodice refers to the top portion of a dress, from waist to shoulders. Bodices were often sleeveless. One could attach and change sleeves. Bodices were supported with whale bone while a shirtwaist was more like today's blouse.

Sleeves called leg-o-mutton erupted like huge balloons at the shoulder, then tapered down toward the wrist. By 1894, the puffiness grew so large that sleeves needed support from balled cotton or stiffening.

Shirtwaists were yoked in the early 90s. The yokes were often edged with ruffles.

Some shirtwaists were man tailored and quite plain while others featured copious embellishments.

The Suit

Outside the home women wore suits consisting of a matching skirt and jacket worn over a shirtwaist. Jacket shoulders and sleeves were large enough to accommodate the large puffed sleeves.

Suits were constructed of tweeds and heavyweight fabrics. Summer suits were made of lighter fabrics like linen. The suits could be simple, based on menswear and made by tailors instead of dress makers. Some suits featured decorative embroidery or were elaborately embellished with ruffles and lace.

The Tea Gown

Tea gowns allowed women comfort and freedom of movement. Born out of the Aesthetic and Dress Reform movements, tea gowns could be donned without assistance and came in many styles. Some resembled a combination of a bathrobe and a ball gown. Undefined waists could be worn loose or cinched with a belt or sash. Princess line tea gowns with long, flowing sleeves hinted at medieval costume.

Tea gowns could feature Empire waists, trains, flounces and Watteau pleats (large pleats extending vertically from the top of the back of the dress). Some tea gowns came in floral patterns. They could be simple or ornate with ruffles, tiered sleeves, and lace.

Originally worn at home in the morning or to receive friends for tea, by the 1890s, tea gowns increasingly appeared outside the home in summer at at seaside resorts. Women also wore tea gowns to dine at home.

Outerwear

Women wore coats and capes in cold weather. Large shoulders and sleeves emphasized an hour glass figure.

Capes could be full or hip length. Collars stood high or featured a tall ruffle that covered the neck. Made with velvet or plush, capes were often trimmed in fur, decorated with beading or embroidery.

Short coats hung hip, 2/3, or full length. Chesterfields were popular and could be simple and similar to the men's coats of the day.

Sportswear

A new emphasis on active sports and the interest in rational dress lead to a market for garments that were appropriate for a more active life style. While women formerly participated in equestrian sports or the more sedate croquet, young ladies of the 1890s began to engage in a wide variety of activities.

Bicycles were all the rage and could be ridden with difficulty by a woman in a skirt. Cycling was easier while wearing puffed knickerbockers. Divided skirts with shorter hemlines allowed women to ride comfortably astride a bike. The divided skirt looked like a normal, full skirt when a woman dismounted.

Sportswear appeared to accommodate women's interest in tennis, golf, hiking, and roller skating. As women increasingly attended college, schools offered women's gymnastics and team sports like crew, baseball, and basketball.

Swimwear

While swimming was rare for women, dips in lakes and the sea were seen as a healthy practice. Bathing costumes reflected the popularity of puffy sleeves and modesty. Women wore short bathing dresses with tight waists and knee length bell shaped skirts. Sleeves stopped at the elbow. Swim dresses were often worn over bloomers. Occasionally knickerbockers appeared in place of a skirt/bloomer combination. Bathing shoes and black stocking completed the ensemble.

Footwear

Women's shoes and boots sported medium, chunky high heels. Slightly rounded toes appeared for day and evening wear as well as in boots. Boots featured lace-up or button closures.

Cotton stocking were worn during the day while evening stockings came in silk. Some colored stockings were worn, especially for evening though black black predominated.

Hair and Cosmetics

The use of cosmetics was generally limited to slightly tinted powders and face creams.

Women kept their hair long but only young women wore long tresses. Grown women wore a puffy upswept style twisted into a coil at the top of the head. Women often wore short, curled bangs.

Hats

Small hats came in brimmed or brimless styles. Face veils complimented these small hats. Elaborate decorative elements included complicated piles of ruffles, bunches of lace or artificial flowers, netting, and feathers. Decorations often rose high above the hat's crown. The demand for plumes for the hat industry decimated America's wild bird population.

Large garden style hats became popular as the decade progressed. Styles ranged from fairly simple to highly ornate.

Straw boaters and fedoras were popular and usually worn with few simple embellishments.

Undergarments

In the 1890s, a fashionable lady needed help getting dressed. A lady's maid assisted a woman to don her many layers of undergarments including stockings, chemise, drawers, corset, and petticoats. The corset grew somewhat smaller than in the past with the top reaching just below the bust. Corsets made of layered fabric and stiffened with whalebone, steel, or cane drew criticism. Health professionals, social advocates, and reformers objected to corseting as well as the cumbersome layers of undergarments worn by fashionable women.

Tight corsets restricted breathing and movement. A woman could not even bend over to put on a pair of shoes! The corsets and layers were hot in summer. Some critics felt that women looked unnatural and ridiculous. Health advocates like Dr. J. H. Kellog believed that corseting ruined a woman's musculature. While the corset industry claimed women needed support, Kellogg thought that women should use their own muscles to achieve a correct posture.

While one camp worked to reduce the vast amount of undergarments women wore, new designs introduced new bust supporters padded to correct developmental deficiencies.

Summary

Fashions of the 1890s reflected a new view of women. Earlier Victorian styles restricted movement. This enforced docility emphasized the point that an upper class woman did little but sit around drinking tea. The ability to reach, bend, or twist had been previously reserved for the working class. Well to do women were supposed to be passive.

As fashionable young women began to emerge from the cocoon of passivity, styles changed to accommodate comfort and movement.

1895 Film of Workers Leaving a Factory

Questions & Answers

Question: What did feminist women wear in 1890?

Answer: Ask yourself the question, "what do feminists wear today?" Is there a uniform? Many people see the word "feminist" as a modern term and that women of the past were protofeminists. That being said, maybe you should Google image some prominent educators, suffragettes, and social reformers of the day to see what they looked like as well as the clothing they wore.

There are easy to find images of women like Emaline Panhurst, Millicent Garret Fawcett, Sarah Emily Davies, Annie Besant, Josephine Butler, and Frances Power Cobbe. You will see that they, for the most part, dressed according to the style of the era in which they lived.

Comments

Dolores Monet (author) from East Coast, United States on March 04, 2019:

Hi Katharina J - that sounds like such an interesting job! I would think that you could find some information from your local historical society.

In general women who worked in those days dressed differently than the urban elite. Women who worked on farms would only wear a corset to go into town or for special occasions as they restrict movement. Their hems were higher, at or slightly above the ankle. Their clothing needed to be loose enough for hard work. Outdoors, they would wear bonnets to protect their skin and eyes from the sun.

Boots would have laced up the front.

For more information you might want to look at some books on the topic including:

"Dressing a Nation: Calico Dresses and Buffalo Robes 1840s - 1890s: by Katherine Krohn

"No Lady of Leisure: Clothing for the Victorian and Edwardian Working Woman" by Marna Jean Davis.

Katharina J on February 23, 2019:

This article is wonderful! I've always been interested women's fashion throughout history, but now I have an opportunity to incorporate it into my job. I'm working at a living museum that is a farm from around 1884. I was wondering, what kind of clothing would working American women wear? Specifically kinds of boots and corsets. We have a lot of resources at the farm, but not enough to be sure that we are presenting the fashions correctly. I'd be so grateful for some input!

Dolores Monet (author) from East Coast, United States on November 15, 2018:

Hi Peggy - it seems like they'd be torn up too. I remember being young and wearing pants that were too long. It did not take long to mess up the hems. But trains have come in and out of style and seem to work indoors for formal occasions. I had a bit of a train on my vintage wedding dress. What a pain!

Peggy Woods from Houston, Texas on November 12, 2018:

This is so interesting how fashions reflected the times and how women participated in society. That remark about the dresses with trains being unsanitary is so true. Just imagine what those trains would have picked up from being dragged in the streets!

Dolores Monet (author) from East Coast, United States on March 21, 2017:

Hi Flourish Anyway - thank you! I too love the old fashions but would not be happy wearing them myself. My favorite period is 1912 or so into the 1920s when things loosen up a bit.

Dolores Monet (author) from East Coast, United States on March 21, 2017:

Hi Dora - I remember when I was in the 9th grade, I noticed that lots of the girls wore girdles (the corset of the day). I thought it was ridiculous. So many of them were so skinny, what was there to hold in? In Victorian times the idea was that women were so weak they could not maintain correct posture without corsets. Of course this was the concept sold by the corset and fashion industry.

Dolores Monet (author) from East Coast, United States on March 21, 2017:

Hi Anne - it's pretty but still pretty uncomfortable. This corset is also suggested for exercise. Sure. I'd rather just exercise.

Anne Harrison from Australia on March 20, 2017:

Love the ventilated corset - why did I never think of that! A fascinating article. The clothes look so elegant, but I prefer the ease of today.

Dora Weithers from The Caribbean on March 20, 2017:

Imagine the kind of corsets women today would have to wear in order to look half as shapely. Still, I like the idea of clothes that kept the body (not necessarily the hands and feet) covered. A healthy balance between now and then would accommodate comfort and movement while maintaining decency.

This article gives us women so much to consider and discuss. Thank you very much for this informative presentation.

FlourishAnyway from USA on March 20, 2017:

I love your fashion articles, and this historical period is among my favorite. From the hair to the hats (no birds for me though)to the shoes and puffy sleeves I can just imagine donning all this and laying back on my fainting couch. Love it all but thankful to be a modern woman with rights.

Dolores's interest in fashion history dates from her teenage years when vintage apparel was widely available in thrift stores.

Who Was Coco Chanel?

Gabrielle "Coco" Chanel was the mother of 20th-century fashion. She introduced the concept of comfort and ease of movement into women's clothing. Chanel gave us soft trousers, jersey, pockets, and the Little Black Dress. Her designs were, at the time, shockingly simple. Her concepts created what was to become what we think of as classic style.

Before Chanel, women were trussed up in heavy corsets and festooned in lace, ribbons, flowers, and pleats. They were encumbered by gigantic hats. Before Chanel, women's lives revolved around their clothing. One wore a certain garment at home in the morning, changed for lunch or to receive guests, changed again to go out for a walk, and changed for tea, for dinner, for the races, and for theater ad infinitum. Chanel's influence allowed for clean lines and drastically cut down on a fashionable woman's wardrobe essentials.

Background

Gabrielle Chanel was born in a charity hospital in 1883 to a young unmarried mother and an itinerant peddler. When Gabrielle's mother, Jeanne, died of complications due to chronic respiratory problems, Gabrielle and her sisters were placed in a Catholic orphanage in Aubazine, France. Her grandparents, who already had 19 children, could not afford to take their grandchildren.

Here, the young girl grew up surrounded by women who lived happily unattached to men. The sisters of Aubazine lived simply, working as teachers, nurses, and in social work. All were answerable to a female boss, the mother superior. Despite the ostentatious late Victorian sensibilities, life a the abbey offered an austerity that was to influence Gabrielle all her life. The sisters dressed in plain black and white habits, a color combination that became one of Chanel's favorites.

At 18, she went to a finishing school in Moulins, the Pensionnat Notre Dame. Here, Chanel learned to sew. Her aunt Adrienne (the youngest of her grandparent's 19 children) also attended the school. The young ladies not only resembled one another, but became very close. Gabrielle, her sisters, and Adrienne often visited Adrienne's sister, Louise, in nearby Vavennes sur Alliler. The creative Louise was fond of enhancing garments with fanciful trim made of fabric scraps, ribbon, and handkerchiefs. Aunt Louise and the girls added cuffs to plain dresses, decorated blouses, and designed hats while together on weekend visits.

Upon leaving school, Gabrielle and her Aunt Adrienne were employed as seamstresses at a business that catered to young women. In the small rented room they shared, they also took in sewing for a tailor shop frequented by military men. Young Gabrielle entered a new life. Dashing young cavalrymen introduced her to the world of theater, horse racing, and the cabaret scene. After the poverty and austerity of her childhood, the life of fun and frivolity opened her eyes. Gabrielle Chanel wanted to be a star.

Though not blessed with a singing voice, Gabrielle took to the stage. Her personality and stage presence earned her applause and a new nickname: Coco.

Hats

In 1904, Coco moved to the country home of her lover, Etienne Balsan. Heir to a textile fortune, Balsan maintained the place as a party house for the elite and the young polo crowd. While she did not fit in with high society, she found her place at the stables. She loved horses and realized that women's clothing did not work well with an equestrian lifestyle. She often wore Balsan's clothing, which she felt more suitable for her activities. Soon, Balsan's tailor helped Chanel to create jodhpurs and a riding jacket. Chanel wore trousers and rode astride while most of the women were still riding side-saddle.

Around this time, Gabrielle returned to her old hobby of designing hats. Soon, Balsan's socialite friends began to order Chanel hats, which were simpler and easier to wear than the standards of the day. The hats became so popular that she moved to Balsan's Paris apartment where she hired her sister to help decorate and sell hats for wealthy Parisian clients.

21 Rue Cambon

In 1908, Chanel met Arthur "Boy" Capel, a wealthy suitor whose lifestyle was vastly different than the society at Balsan's playboy country home. Chapel's intellectual interests included politics, spiritual themes, and the social justice movement. He saw a new kind of woman in Chanel, a strong independent woman able to manage her own affairs. He encouraged her interests and together with Balsan, financed a shop at 21 Rue Cambon in Paris' 1st arrondissement, the cultural hub of the city. In later years, the shop moved to 31 Rue Cambon.

Boy Chapel introduced Coco to Lucienne Rabate, a seamstress whose formal training and place at Chez Lewis helped transform Gabrielle's business from a millinery shop to a trendy boutique frequented by the upper crust. By 1912, Chanel offered sweaters, skirts, and dressed in addition to her popular line of hats.

In 1913 she opened a shop in the fashionable seaside town of Deauville, France. In addition to hats, the boutique offered light, comfortable clothing that would soon be known as sportswear. Socialites wore Chanel's creations to the race track, casinos, and grand hotels of the North East resort town. Her innate business sense compelled Coco to give outfits to women of the highest social rank who became walking advertisements for the easy-to-wear new styles.

The Great War

Chanel's purchase of a textile merchant's overstock of Jersey in 1914 was a shocking move toward a totally new look in women's wear. Jersey was a fabric of the lower classes and used most often in men's undergarments. Chanel used the humble material to introduce a new silhouette for women, de-emphasizing the waist and creating a smooth, slim, youthful look. Though Jersey's color was limited to gray and navy blue, Chanel soon had it dyed to add bold new colors.

The outbreak of World War I sent Parisians fleeing to places like Deauville, where business closures left Chanel Mode the only show in town. The Great War was good for Coco Chanel.

Fabric restrictions worked in favor of a designer who offered simple, pared-down modes of dress. Food shortages led to a slimmer look, as people had less to eat. And as women entered the workplace, clothes created for ease of movement were better suited than the fussy garments of the Edwardian era. Chanel designed stylish pajamas for Parisian women to wear when they fled their bedrooms for bomb shelters in the middle of the night.

By 1916, Coco Chanel had gained an international reputation and was praised for her revolutionary new styles by American Vogue.

By 1917, Chanel maintained five workrooms throughout France. She moved with the bohemian art crowd and the cultural elite and counted Picasso, Renoir, Cocteau, and Diaghilev among her friends. Her association with the exiled Grand Duke Dimitri Pavlovich Romanov brought a hint of old Russia into her designs, inspiring her to create embroidered pieces, velvet gowns, tunics, and long ropes of pearls.

Chanel # 5

In the early 1920s, Coco decided it was time to modernize fragrance. Perfumes of the time were often heavy, each product ruled by an obvious, particular scent (such as rose, lily-of-the-valley, etc.) The old fragrances were given exotic or fanciful names. Along with perfumer Ernest Beaux, she sought something crisp and fresh and modern. By combining several natural essences and synthetic aldehydes, the new perfume was lighter than the old products and the scent lasted longer.

Instead of an advertising promotion, Chanel set out to introduce her new fragrance on the sly. While dining out, she surreptitiously sprayed passing women with the scent. Saleswomen sprayed dressing rooms creating a pleasant and mysterious new aroma. She gifted bottles of her perfume to influential trendsetters. Only after creating a sensation did she display the perfume in her shops. And so, Chanel # 5 was born and remains the world's most popular fragrance.

Little Black Dress

For hundreds of years, black was the color of mourning and invisibility. It was the color of maids' uniforms, a color to be tucked into the shadows. In 1913, Chanel created a simple black dress for the actress Suzanne Orlandi.

Years later in the mid-1920s, Chanel created a series of knee-length black dresses. Made of wool for day wear, fringed and sequined chiffon for evening, Chanel's Little Black Dress became an essential wardrobe item and turned black from dull to chic.

1920s–30s

Throughout the 1920s, Chanel's talents turned to costuming for ballet and theater. The new modernism intermixed tango with classical ballet and added the clatter of typewriters to musical scores. Chanel's unique take on modern design added to the often controversial performances. She flirted with Hollywood designing costumes for three Goldwyn films, but producers thought her costumes were too subdued for the big screen.

Chanel returned to Paris to create sleek dresses and jackets with beautiful silk lining. A four-year experiment with girlishness offered up uncharacteristic ruffles and rosettes. 1929 saw the creation of a Chanel classic, her famous flap bag. The quilted leather bag with a curious zipper in the flap was hand-carried and evolved over the years.

As the political climate of Europe grew nationalistic, Chanel introduced a series of suits influenced by military garb. She incorporated red, white, and blue (colors of the French flag) into her clothing displaying a patriotic pride. She began to think of herself as an iconic symbol of France, puffed up with hubris. In 1936 the rumblings of workers' rights led her employees to demand weekly paychecks, a 40 hour work week, and paid vacations. When the women went on strike, Chanel fired 300 of them, furious at their socialistic demands. She was forced to give in in order to produce a new collection. But her rage may have pushed her toward the growing trend of Fascism with its hatred of the progressive movement and Jews.

World War II

In May 1940, as the Germans advanced on Paris, the city emptied, and over half of the population, including Chanel, fled. But Germany hoped to maintain the cultural center and reopened theaters, restaurants, and music halls. By August, many Parisians returned home.

During the German occupation of Paris, Chanel closed her shop but maintained her residence at the Ritz. The lavish hotel was filled with German officers, and Coco fell into an affair with a Nazi SS officer. Later reports have suggested that she was involved in espionage for the Nazis, and in one incident, witnesses claimed that she was seen selecting antiques as the Nazis pillaged the home of a Jewish family.

When the war ended, Chanel was investigated and seen, at the very least, to be a collaborator. She was no longer the emblem of the new French woman, but a pariah and soon moved to Switzerland.

Comeback

Chanel's return to Paris and the opening of her highly anticipated 1954 Spring collection fell flat. The garments presented as remakes of previous collections and Parisian fashionistas were not interested. An irate Chanel proclaimed that "people no longer know what elegance is!"

But the smooth lines of her sheath dresses, slim skirts, and boxy cardigan jackets appealed to Americans. Women in the US loved the graceful, easy styles and found the Chanel ready-to-wear brands relaxing and practical. Unlike many couture designers, Chanel embraced copies as well as the ready-to-wear market feeling that it all served to promote her name. She became a celebrity favorite and soon reclaimed her place in the hearts of the French.

How women dress today is thanks to Coco Chanel. When you see women in perfect suits or wearing soft comfortable pants; when you see ropes of pearls or sniff the ubiquitous scent of Chanel #5; when you feel dressed just fine in a black tee shirt with a gold chain necklace; or tuck your hands into pockets; when you slip on a chunky cuff bracelet, you can thank Coco Chanel.

"I don't do fashion; I am fashion."

— Coco Chanel

© 2016 Dolores Monet

Comments

Nancy Hinchlif on October 29, 2018:

Again, Loved this article. I worked in the fashion industry years ago for Nieman Marcus and was fortunate to be able to buy some Chanel pieces at cost. Of course, I always had a little black dress. There were plenty of "knock-offs" I could afford. Thanks for this.

Dolores Monet (author) from East Coast, United States on October 29, 2018:

When you say contemporary, you mean fashion designers who were influential during the time that Chanel worked in the field. That would be a huge list including Hubert de Givenchy, Jeanne Lavin, Elsa Schiaparelli, Pierre Cardin, Jean Patou, Claire McCardell, Mary Quant, Vivienne Westwood and any other designers who worked during the time Chanel was a designer. Due to her long life and long influence, the list is much longer than the few presented here.

lc on October 28, 2018:

who would be a contemporary of coco chanel

Dolores Monet (author) from East Coast, United States on October 26, 2018:

Hi Ethel - she certainly changed fashion forever with her introduction of jersey for women's casual wear. Thanks!

Ethel Smith from Kingston-Upon-Hull on October 26, 2018:

The 1928 image shows she was way ahead of the crowd. Thanks for an interesting read Dolores. I knew little of Chanel yet she was such an influential figure in the world of fashion. And from such humble beginnings too.

Dolores Monet (author) from East Coast, United States on November 01, 2016:

BlossomSB - not everyone loved the huge skirts of Dior's New Look. In Europe people were still suffering economically and many felt that the excessive use of fabric was morally wrong. But they sure were pretty!

Blonde Logic - yep. Poor little Gabrielle sure made something of herself. She had vision and ambition. She also knew how to mix with the right people and who to sleep with. That's how she bankrolled her first shop.

Dolores Monet (author) from East Coast, United States on November 01, 2016:

Glenis Rix - glad you enjoyed. I used to have an aunt that would go to high end shops and try clothing on. Then she'd turn it all inside out, study on it, and go home and make it! Wish I had that patience!

Mary Wickison from Brazil on October 29, 2016:

What an interesting read. People often think that to make it you have to be born with a silver spoon in your mouth. She showed the world that wasn't true.

Having friends in all the right places helped but what a visionary.

Bronwen Scott-Branagan from Victoria, Australia on October 28, 2016:

Thank you! That was so interesting. During World War II, frocks became much slimmer as ration cards reduced the amount of fabric that could be bought, but as the world recovered, the dresses of the early fifties made up for it with circular skirts. I really enjoyed the images, too.

Dolores Monet (author) from East Coast, United States on October 28, 2016:

Hi Alek - thanks! I am just so amazed at how she changed what we think of as attractive clothing. The garments women wore at the turn of the last century were pretty but so uncomfortable. When today, we think of a classy woman the picture in our minds comes from Chanel designs. I love the picture of her with the striped top and loose pants. Who doesn't have that outfit?

Dolores Monet (author) from East Coast, United States on October 28, 2016:

Hi Flourish, there was a big hubbub about it some years back. Quite interesting. She remained close to her Nazi boyfriend, "Spatz" until he died.

Dolores Monet (author) from East Coast, United States on October 28, 2016:

Thanks, Bill, glad you enjoyed!

Glen Rix from UK on October 28, 2016:

Great hub! I love the fashion plates. I've spent half my life coveting a Chanel jacket. Thought about attempting to make one, but I can't spare the rumoured 200 hours of quilting and construction. Prefer Coco to No. 5 - it's on my Christmas wish list.

Nancy Hinchliff from Essex Junction, Vermont on October 28, 2016:

Hi Dolores. I really enjoyed your sketch of Coco Chanel. She was always one of my favorite designers, not that I could always afford her clothes. But I loved her perfume.

FlourishAnyway from USA on October 27, 2016:

This was a wonderful review of who she was and her impact on fashion. I had no idea about her Nazi ties.

Bill Holland from Olympia, WA on October 27, 2016:

That was interesting despite the fact I know nothing about style. :)

Chantelle has been an online writer for more than 4 years. Her interests include politics, holidays, pets, parenting, Disney, and fashion.

Many Jewish designers are now so famous that they have become household names in popular culture. Who hasn't bought a pair of Levi's? Discover how these designers rose to the top of the fashion pyramid to become ubiquitous in American culture.

In the Beginning

The Jews, just like every other American ethnic group, are immigrants. When the Sephardic Jews fled the Spanish Inquisition in the late 1400s, many settled in Brazil. Two dozen eventually landed in New Amsterdam (now New York City) to form a tiny Jewish community in the U.S. As their numbers grew, they settled in Newport, Rhode Island, and Charleston, South Carolina, and they became a bit more assimilated and even fought in the Revolutionary War.

Then came the European Jews fleeing German persecution in the mid 1800s. By 1880, their number had swelled to 250,000 in a country that counted 50 million Americans. Seeking safety and opportunity, these German-speaking Jews moved west with the country. Many even fought in the Civil War.

The Flood Gates Are Opened

Few migrations in history matched the Jewish flight from Eastern Europe in the late 1800s. The repressive policies of the Russian czar, forced the Jews into one large ghetto, known as the Pale of Settlement, which stretched from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea. The Pale, characterized by poverty and violent crackdowns, led to more than two million Jews pouring into the US by the beginning of World War I. At the peak they streamed into Ellis Island at a rate of 18,000 a month, with ferries running to New York and New Jersey twenty-four hours a day.

Before the Civil War, most Americans made their own clothes. But in the mid-1800s, with the invention of the Singer sewing machine, the mass production of clothes in standardized sizes was became possible. Dry goods stores – many of them owned by German Jewish immigrants – rushed to capitalize on the opportunity. By 1890, most Americans were buying their clothes ready-made in shops. And by the turn of the century, 60% of all the Jews employed in New York made their living in the garment industry. The stage was set for the development and rise of the fashion designer.

1. Levi's

Jacob Davis, a Jewish immigrant from Latvia, owned and ran a tailor shop in Reno, Nevada.It was 1870 when a woman came in and asked him to make a pair of work pants for her husband who kept splitting his seams. Using a heavy duck twill that he had purchased from the Levi Strauss general store in San Francisco he added, as an afterthought, copper rivets hoping they would keep the seams from splitting. For his work he received $3.00.

The pants were a success and Davis would sell more than 200 pairs of pants in the next 18 months. Swamped by the demand, and fearing someone would copy his idea, he made two pairs of pants, one in twill and one in denim. These he sent to his supplier, Levi Strauss, asking him to partner up and pay the patent fee for the pants. Levi Strauss accepted.

Loeb Strauss was also a Jewish immigrant who had arrived in New York in 1847 at the age of 18 from Germany. When the Gold Rush came, Strauss changed his first name to Levi and set off for California. Having worked in a general store in New York, he intended to outfit the miners. When he read Davis’ letter, Strauss leapt at the chance to patent a winning formula. He and Davis received their patent in 1873. By then, the miners were calling the pants “Levi’s,” so the company patented that name too. Davis and Strauss produced pants together until 1907, when Davis sold his interest to his partner.

Levi Strauss & Co. now sell well over 1,000,000 pairs of jeans every year.

2. Ralph Lauren

Ralph Lauren was born Ralph Lifshitz in New York City in 1939. His parents were Jewish immigrants who had fled Belarus. They settled in the Bronx.

Ralph changed his last name to Lauren at the age of 16 after being continually teased by kids at school. Ralph always had an interest in preppy and vintage clothes and after a brief stint in the Army, Lauren took on a sales job at Brooks Brothers.

In 1967, Lauren began designing his own men’s neckties. Noted for their wider cut, he began selling them at large department stores under the brand name, "Polo". Encouraged by the success of his necktie line, Lauren took out a $30,000 loan and expanded his designs to to include a full menswear line.

In 1970, Lauren was awarded the Coty Award for his men's designs. Following this recognition, he released a line of women's suits and shortly thereafter short-sleeve cotton shirts in 24 colors emblazoned with the polo player logo. The Lauren brand has grown to include a luxury clothing line known as Ralph Lauren Purple, a rough and rustic line of apparel dubbed RRL, a home-furnishing collection called Ralph Lauren Home.

Lauren currently produces clothing for men, women and children and has literally hundreds of stores worldwide. His personal wealth has been estimated to be $6 billion and he is one of the 200 wealthiest people in the world.

3. Diane Von Furstenberg

Eighteen months after she was released from Auschwitz, Liliane Halflin gave birth to her daughter Diane in Brussels. Her father, Lipa, had emigrated from Romania to Belgium in 1929. Though her father was an adventurous soul, it was her mother who the most profound effect upon her, fore teaching her that "fear is not an option". This led to Diane attending Madrid University and eventually the University of Geneva where she studied economics.

Upon graduation, she moved to Paris where she worked as an assistant to a fashion photographer. Her adventures led her next to work as an apprentice to a textile manufacturer where she learned about cut, color and fabric. It was here where she first produced silk jersey dresses.

In 1970 she started designing women's dresses in earnest and by 1974 she had produced her iconic wrap dress for which she is known for even today. (Her jersey wrap dress is on display in the Costume Institute at the Metropolitan Museum of Art for for influence on women's fashion.)

After the phenomenal success of the wrap dress, Diane's business continue to grow. Her brand includes women's clothes, perfume and clothing for children. Today, her estimated net worth is $1.2 billion dollars.

4. Donna Karan

Donna Karan was born Donna Ivy Faske to Jewish parents who lived in the Forest Hills neighborhood in the borough of Queens, New York City. Her father died when Donna was three years old and her mother moved the family to Woodmere, on Long Island.After graduating high school she attended the Parson School of Design.

After graduation, Karan worked as an assistant designer with Anne Klein where she was promoted to associate designer in 1971. Klein herself died in 1974, Karan, together with her former classmate and friend Louis Dell' Ollio, became head designer of the house. Karan left Anne Klein in 1984 to start her own business.

Karan initially designed Seven Easy Pieces which could all be mixed and matched to create a fully integrated wardrobe. Karan's idea was built around the bodysuit as a base layer, which was designed to offer a smooth silhouette. Her first runway show opened with eight models dressed only in those black bodysuits and tights; they next began adding wrap skirts, pull on knit pants, tailored jackets, and all kinds of stretchy cashmere layers. Donna Karan had created a revolution. It was a modern mix and match system of dressing, with a twist.

In 1988, she extended her brand to include DKNY, a less expensive clothing line for younger women. Two years later, she created DKNY Jeans, a denim-inspired collection.

Karen resigned as CEO in 1997, but continued as a designer for the Donna Karan line. Today, her estimated net worth is valued a $450 million.

A Major Impact on Popular Culture

Whether they changed the working man or woman's "uniform" or created clothes for the masses to aspire to a different class, American culture has been changed by the many contributions of the immigrants who came here looking for a better life. Long may this tradition reign.

© 2015 Chantelle Porter

Comments

Chantelle Porter (author) from Ann Arbor on January 13, 2016:

We really are a diverse country. I think the info we get is slanted to the majority but a lot of people of many persuasions have really become quite successful.

Besarien from South Florida on January 13, 2016:

I love fashion and history. It is awesome that you started with the first immigrants and brought us to now.

What item of clothing is more quintessentially American than Levis? Quoddy leather moccasins maybe? That's about it. I think there are at least a hundred more Jewish designers worthy of mentioning too but the ones you picked have humble beginnings, meteoric careers, and interesting life stories.

It drives me crazy when some people insist that this a Christian country. No! It's an everybody country! That is what is so great about it. Really loved this hub!

Mary Norton from Ontario, Canada on January 05, 2016:

I really enjoyed reading about these designers. But what impressed me was how coming from immigrant families, they went to become major success.

Chantelle Porter (author) from Ann Arbor on December 27, 2015:

Personally, I think I'm going to stick with washing mine.

drbj and sherry from south Florida on December 27, 2015:

And here I have been washing my jeans for years. Who knew? Thanks for this newsflash. I was inspired by Levi Strauss, too, and wrote an 'Interview with Levi Strauss and Jacob Davis.'

Chantelle Porter (author) from Ann Arbor on December 27, 2015:

I couldn't agree more!

Deb Hirt from Stillwater, OK on December 27, 2015:

This is all the more reason to accept those poor Syrian folks trying to escape torture. There is much more greatness waiting to try their chances in the melting pot of America.

Chantelle Porter (author) from Ann Arbor on December 25, 2015:

Thank you. Happy New Year!

MG Singh emge from Singapore on December 25, 2015:

Lots of interesting information. Good hub

Chantelle Porter (author) from Ann Arbor on December 25, 2015:

Thank you. Merry Christmas!

breakfastpop on December 25, 2015:

Thanks for this very interesting and enjoyable read!

Dolores's interest in fashion history dates from her teenage years when vintage apparel was widely available in thrift stores.

People wear clothes for many reasons, primarily for protection and decoration. While it may seem that protection from the elements is the main function of clothing, the concept of decorating the body is an ancient practice, going back to the days of the Neanderthal who disappeared 30,000 years ago.

Garments have been worn for thousands of years as gender identification, to promote sexual attractiveness, to display status, age, occupation, religion, group membership, and political affiliation, for ceremonial occasions, and for personal expression. Primitive cultures of the modern world who live in clothing optional societies adorn themselves with scarring, tattoos, body paint, amulets, and headgear.

Throughout history, clothing choices were limited by available materials. When people began to devise garments, they were limited by their environment, technology, and geographical place in the world. An abundance of sheep offered wool. In or near places where flax grew, linen became a primary source of woven fabric. As trade routes grew, people were able to expand their use of available materials.

Functionality also played an important role in the wearing of clothing. Hard working peasants needed garments that allowed for ease of movement while the elite displayed their status and power by wearing more elaborate costumes that often restricted movement.

Historical Evidence of Clothing

Garments wear out. Imagine how many of today's garments would last 1,000 years or more! Few old garments appear as archaeological evidence. But experts have found evidence of clothing through art such as statues and cave paintings. Written accounts, some thousands of years old, have survived that offer information on trade, business, inventories, and letters.

The Max Plank Institute in Germany suggests that people wore some type of clothing as long as 107,000 years ago. David Reed of the University of Florida suggests that people wore clothing as long as 170,00 years ago. The study of body lice DNA showed that body lice differentiated from head lice around that time.

Neanderthals appear to have used dyes 75,000 years ago as suggested by lumps of iron oxide found at Shanidar Cave in Iraq. Bracelets and necklaces made of animal sinew strung with beads made of shells, bones, and teeth have been found in Neanderthal grave sites.

Accounts of the textile trade document textiles used for trade in the ancient Middle East and Egypt. Physical evidence of linen has been found in Eastern Europe that dates 30,000 years ago.

Clothing As Protection

A garment protects the body from much more than a chilly day. Garments protect people from sun and wind burn as well as blown dust, insects, thorns, and rain. Wide hat brims may be attractive but they also protect the face from the sun, the eyes from glare, and keep rain off the face.

Ancient Egyptian women wore linen so fine as to appear transparent. Linen cools the body and wicks away the moisture of perspiration.

Workers wear sturdy clothing as well as protective gear - think cowboys in chaps, butchers in aprons, and fire fighters in fire prof jackets.

The ancient Romans in their togas believed that trousers were a barbarian style, but Northern Europeans lived in a much colder climate which demanded greater insulation provided by pants. The equestrian people of ancient times wore pants to prevent chaffing.

Clothing As Modesty

We often attribute modesty to a sense of decorum and morality. But the concept may be much more than Adam and Eve donning fig leaves. People who protected themselves from the elements, from cold, heat, sunburn, from insect bites, from scratches and cuts from thorns would not only look more attractive, but would have had a survival advantage. Remember that antibiotics are a relatively new invention and that, in the past, an infected cut could kill you.

Modesty varies from one culture to the next and even varies in one culture depending on circumstance. A woman who would think nothing of wearing a bikini at the beach would never do so on a city street. Not only would she seem immodest, but she'd look like an idiot.

Modesty can also be tied to tradition. In the Middle East, especially in Muslim cultures, full body covering is modest behavior. But harsh desert climates demand the protection offered by head to to dressing.

Elders often object to new styles on the basis of morality. The shocking view of women's legs when hems rose in the 1920s may have been more of a result of the automobile than of the immodest behavior of young ladies. It's easier to maneuver behind the wheel of a car without the encumbrance of long or tight skirts. Trousers appeared immodest to the elders of the early 20th century. But changes in the activity levels of young women, in their new interest in sports, in women taking on roles previously the realm of men made wearing pants more practical.

The Impact of Technology on Clothing

Technology has a huge impact on why people wear certain garments. The production and distribution of textiles, footwear, headgear, and ornamentation depends on the ability to produce clothing and to move it from place to place.

When people learned to weave textiles from wool and flax, their garments became more complicated than the older clothing made out of leather and fur. Wool and flax were more comfortable and more adaptable to changes in the weather, and easier to work with.

The establishment of trade routes allowed people to move their textiles greater distances and to obtain textiles from sources far from home. Silk brought to Europe from China created a whole new source of luxury for the elite and enriched the mercantile class.

The spinning wheel, and ever more complicated looms quickened production and availability of fabrics. The Industrial Revolution led to mass production that not only changed the economy, but led to more rapidly changing styles. As investors produced fabrics and garments more quickly, they needed the customers to increase demand. While previous styles changed over generations, producers needed to create a demand for their product.

Magazines featured fashion plates to lure women into buying the latest style. Transportation technologies like steam ships, trains, and trucks allowed garments and fabrics to be moved more quickly. As communication technology became faster (moving pictures, TV, the internet) concepts of new styles spread faster than in the slower paced past.

The creation of synthetic fabrics like nylon made clothing cheaper. People today have more garments than they did 100 years ago.

The Influence of Gender and Sexual Attractiveness on Clothing

Throughout history, people have worn clothing as gender identification and to appear attractive to the opposite sex. In most cultures, men and women wear slightly different types of garments.

In ancient times, the length of a robe depended on gender. In Ancient Rome men wore shorter hems wile women wore long, draped gowns. The costumes of Ancient Egypt are also gender specific. In medieval Europe men wore tunics exposing their legs, while women's legs were covered at all times.

The idea of what is sexually attractive can change over time. After long years of deep decolletage that highlighted the bosom, style changes were made to emphasize the hips. When hemlines rose in the early 20th century, women's legs were emphasized as the object of attraction.

While the occasional appearance of women in trousers seemed ridiculous and unfeminine in the late 19th century, one hundred years lager, slacks came to be viewed a quite fetching.

Clothing and Status

A person's status in the social hierarchy can be easily judged by what they wear. Styles, fabrics, colors, headgear, and ornamentation are markedly different between people of various socio-economic levels. This may seem obvious when we look at portraits of kings and queens of yesteryear as opposed to pictures of peasants. But even today, when we all dress in a similar manner the quality of materials used and production of the garment is obvious.

The better the clothing, the higher the status of the wearer. This works to define the powerful and to establish who is in charge. While factory workers wear protective garb and tough utility garments, the boss can be easily identified in his white shirt and tie.

In medieval Europe, laws were enacted that mandated dress in accordance with social status. Sumptuary laws forbade members of the newly wealthy mercantile class from wearing certain colors, fabrics, and embellishments. The nobility feared that the power of fancy clothes might diminish their own.

An experiment by Tilburg University of the Netherlands sent out two groups of people to a shopping mall in order to convince others to take a survey. The group that wore designer labels found that 52% of people asked agreed to take the survey. The non designer logo questioners only convinced 13% of take the survey. Obviously, we assign status and authority to people wearing garments that indicate wealth.

Status not only refers to social position. One can tell a person's marital status at a glance by looking for a wedding ring on the ring finger of their left hand.

Clothing and Group Membership

Children can identify the group membership of a person from a simple drawing. Police, firefighters, health care workers, military personnel, business people, farmers, and the clergy can all be clearly spotted by what they wear.

People of certain religious groups can be identified by their clothing. A Catholic priest wears a slightly different collar than a Protestant minister. Hasidic dress identifies a person of the Jewish faith. Muslims can often be identified by their garments. Old Order Amish differ from Traditional Mennonites by wearing plain dress and beards for married men while Traditional Mennonite women wear printed fabrics, and the men do not wear beards.

Until the late 20th century, nurses typically wore white uniforms. The white cap was unique to the school that each nurse attended.

Interests, hobbies, and favorite recreational activities are often declared by clothing choices. We form stereotypes in our minds of skate boarders, hikers, surfers, golfers, etc. A mid 20th century American homemaker could be identified by her house dress and apron.

Clothing as a Political Statement

Politics are often displayed by dress. Today, a red tie indicates a Republican while a blue tie means the wearer is a Democrat. A person dressed in hippie garb describes their anti-establishment leanings. For 200 years, the Bohemian look has shown that the wearer is against mass production and embraces recycling, handicraft, and artistic individuality.

War influences the clothing that we wear. During wartime, popular styles often feature a military look. Fabric restriction of World War II introduced shorter hemlines, non leather footwear, and less embellishment than in the past. Colonial American imported textiles as it was more economical to export agricultural products and timber. But the American Revolution and a boycott of British products induced women women to take up spinning and to create homespun fabrics. Simple homespun garb became a patriotic statement.

The communist revolution in China introduced the famous Mao jacket. As the country turned away from the concept of tradition styles and class division, simple garments (a boxy jacket and loose trousers) became the national form of dress.

Ceremonial Dress

Certain garments are worn for rites and celebrations. The traditional royal dress of European monarchs demanded ornate clothing and headgear for ceremonial occasions and portraits. The kings and queens of yesteryear did not ordinarily wear heavy crowns and cumbersome, bejeweled fur capes for every day wear.

A bride can be easily identified by her clothing. Think of resplendent Indian brides, or the typical western white bridal gown.

People in the military wear dress uniforms with ribbons and other embellishments for special occasions, clothing they would never wear int he field or for daily activities.

On graduation day, high school and college graduates wear a cap and gown. Professors attending the ceremony wear embellishments on their academic robes that identify their field of study.

Why We Wear What We Wear

We display ourselves by clothing choices. Whether dressed for insulation, group affiliation, mood, favorite activity, special occasion, we show the world who we are by our garments. We look at strangers and form immediate concepts of them by their manner of dress. We place them in roles of authority, or see them as a threat. We look at people and decide that we like them or don't like them before they even speak.

Garments protect us from weather and give us a sense of self identify. We are what we wear.

© 2015 Dolores Monet

Comments

Dolores Monet (author) from East Coast, United States on July 04, 2020:

Hi Ann - of course thinking that the well dressed person in expensive clothing is of high status is one thing. Dismissing someone in regular, inexpensive, or even sloppy garments as low status may be a mistake.. There are wealthy people who do not dress in a manner we associate with the elite. Thanks!

Ann Carr from SW England on July 02, 2020:

This is a great trip through clothing, from practicalities to fashion and status. You always describe such things with clarity and a style which interests and informs at the same time.

The progression from simple farm clothes to ceremonial dress makes us realise what influences there have been to the way we look. You're so right about 'first impressions'. We all tend to be guilty of that without looking under the surface or even talking to someone!

Great article, Dolores.

Ann

Mona Sabalones Gonzalez from Philippines on June 28, 2020:

This is a very interesting article. Originally I read it to learn about neanderthal clothing, but as I went further, one could see that clothing reflects lifestyle and that explains why there are so many different variations of clothing that are used over time.

Dolores's interest in fashion history dates from her teenage years when vintage apparel was widely available in thrift stores.

In ten short years, Christian Dior revitalized and revolutionized the fashion industry. When he burst on the Paris fashion scene in 1947, his New Look created an international frenzy never seen before or since. At age 41, the new designer created a dominant new silhouette based on a femininity that combined historic concepts and brought a war-ravaged world into a new age of glamour and luxury.

A few weeks after his debut collection, everyone knew Christian Dior, his look, and his styles. His strategy and innovation, his press-savvy, and his seasonal changes recreated the way women viewed the world of fashion. His marketing concepts revitalized the fashion industry. By 1950, Maison Christian Dior earned over half the total profits of the Parisian couture industry.

Post-World War II Fashion Before Dior

In 1947, Europe was still recovering from a war that ended in 1945. France had been occupied by Nazi Germany for five years. The horror and humiliation of seeing an invading force enter Paris ran deep. The scarcity of heating fuel and food made daily life difficult at best.

The rationing of materials all but destroyed the fashion industry. Haute couture became meaningless against the deprivations wrought by war. Couture houses closed. Designers like Shiaparelli and Mainbocher fled to New York.

The style of women's clothing had adjusted to rationing and restrictions. During World War II, skirt hems rose to save on fabric. Dresses and jackets took on a boxy, military look. Women wore pants for work and to move more easily on bicycles.

Despite the war's end, the mood was bleak and recovery was hard. It must be remembered that World War II marched in on the heels of the Great Depression.

Enter Dior

But on the morning of February 12, 1947, Christian Dior, a new kid on the block, offered something totally new: grand designs featuring glorious skirts, tiny waists, and a female figure that had not been seen for 100 years.

Christian Dior's Background

Christian Dior was born in 1905 in Granville, Normandy, in a home flanked by trees with a view of the English Channel. His father owned a successful fertilizer business. Young Christian was a quiet boy who loved nature. The Dior family moved to Paris during the last years of the Bell Epoque. Also called the Gilded Age, it was a time of great interest in the arts—a time of optimism and prosperity.

Education and Art

Christian attended the University of Sciences Politique in order to fulfill his father's political ambitions. But the young man was soon drawn into a bohemian lifestyle, attracted to the arts and the avante guarde. Financial backing by his father allowed Christian to open an art gallery. When the Great Depression ruined the economy Christian was forced to close the gallery and sell the artwork at a loss. A broke and essentially homeless Dior (the loss of his apartment made him dependent on friends) contracted tuberculosis, a life threatening disease that put him in a sanatorium for a year.

At the suggestion of a friend, Christian took up drawing and eventually sold sketches to magazines and couture houses. His artwork interested Robert Piguet, a Swiss fashion designer at the couture house of Lucien Lelong. Dior had found his calling, working in the fashion industry.

Wartime Years

But the war and the invasion of France put his career on hold. After being mobilized for a short time for land work in the south of France, Dior returned to Paris and to the diminished fashion industry. Apparently, Dior passed information gleaned from the wives of Nazi bigwigs to his sister who was in the resistance. His sister was captured and hauled off to Ravensbruck. Dior used his position to help in her release. He later honored her by naming a perfume Miss Dior.

Financial Backing From Boussac

Shortly after World War II, Dior leaned that the famous textile designer Marcel Boussac wanted to revitalize the House of Philippe de Gaston. In an April 1946 meeting with Boussac, Dior described the public's need for a new post war style. He wanted to return to the luxury of the Belle Epoque but with designs based on a new simplicity created by exquisite craft. Impressed, Boussac provided the financial backing for Dior to open his own design firm.

The New Look Takes the World by Storm

On the morning of February 12, 1947, Maison Christian Dior introduced his Corelle collection to a war-weary society. Dulled by years of austerity, people hungered for something new and fresh.

When the much publicized show opened at 10:30 AM to a packed house, a collective gasp met models clad in unprecedented swaths of fabric. A society used to simple boxy shapes, short skirts, and a military look gobbled up the extravagant sweep of Dior's Corelle line.

Features of the Look

In a time when hemlines brushed just below the knee, Dior's skirts fell to 14 inches above the floor. Following a time when the government restricted the amount of fabric used to produce garments, Dior's full skirts were reminiscent of mid 19th century crinolines. Tiny, corset cinched waistlines, full busts, padded hips, and soft shoulder lines created a revolutionary new female form.

Reception

The show closed to a standing ovation. Doir's designs made the cover of Life Magazine. Press releases turned him into an instant celebrity. Princesses and movie stars snatched up dresses in a frenzy of unfettered hedonism. For a society starved of snazz, the Corelle line was a romantic change of perspective, introducing a fashion renaissance. Within hours, the contents of women's wardrobes became obsolete.

Carmell Snow, the editor-in-chief of Harper's Bazaar exclaimed that Dior offered fashion with a "new look." The phrase, picked up by Reuters, christened the legendary new line.

Not Everyone Approves

Not everyone appreciated the bold new style. Critics objected to the extravagant use of materials in a time of coal shortages. The high cost of haute couture seemed decadent when Parisians stood in bread lines.

Women who had gained a measure of independence during the war years looked on the antebellum silhouette as frivolous. Women used to wearing trousers objected to whalebone corsets and layers of tulle slips or crinolines to maintain an hourglass figure.

But the New Look was everywhere, from haute couture to the swing skirts paired with bobby socks and saddle oxfords worn by American teenagers. He designed the costumes worn by Marlene Dietrich in the movie Stage Fright. The famous Hollywood costume designer Edith Head based her creations for Grace Kelly in the film Rear Window the new style.

Dior Changes the Fashion Industry

Before Dior, a couturier gradually introduced new fashion trends. New collections were slightly different each season with designs based on the look of the previous season. The sudden, sweeping changes embraced by Maison Christian Dior was unprecedented. He became the darling of the press and an international celebrity. Critics thought him a fame seeker and publicity hound, addicted to drama and attention.

Expansion

In 1948, Christian Dior New York brought his products to the ready-to-wear market using fabrics that worked well for machine production and incorporated America's taste for more casual styles.

Wholesale fashion companies were able to purchase Dior designs and produce them for the mass market. Dior also received royalties for each garment. In 1950, Dior earned half the profits of the entire Parisian couture industry. By 1957, Maison Christian Dior offered licensing in 87 countries that offered Dior's label on stockings, handbags, make-up, and perfumes.

Dior's Later Designs

Each new collection was named for an overall theme. Lines like "Evol" and "ZigZag" featured asymmetrical hemlines and bustles.

• 1950s "Oblique" and "Vertical" lines showed narrow skirts that fell to mid calf and featured a looser bodice with big sleeves.

• 1951s "Long" line offered a Princess look whose long lines featured high waists and spencer jackets. "Oval" highlighted oval necklines, oval sleeves, and rounded hips.

• 1952 introduced the "Sinuous" and "Profile" lines which included shirtwaists and cocktail outfits. Pleated crepe dresses were shown with matching cardigans in sugar almond colors.

• 1953"s "Tulip" took inspiration from the natural world with large floral prints and a higher hemline.

• 1954 and 55's "H" line and 1955's "A" and "Y" lines used letters of the alphabet to describe garment shapes. The "Y' line accentuated broad shoulders and bust that tapered to a narrow skirt. High standing collars completed the look.

• The "Arrow" line of 1956 featured high waistlines worn with belts and short swing jackets.

• Dior's last collection, the "Spindle" line surprised all with a loose fit showing no waistline with a relaxed and casual elegance. Called the sack dress by many, the look was continued the following year after his death.

The Legend Lives On

Despite his influence, Christian Dior ran his couture house for a mere 10 years. On October 29, 1957, Dior suffered a fatal heart attack at an Italian resort. The windows of Maison Christian Dior were festooned in black and nearly buried under mountains of flowers left by mourners. In Dior's honor, floral tributes were laid along the route to the Arc de Triomphe.

The man may have died, taken too soon, but Maison Christian Dior lives on as does his legend. The administration of Maison Christian Dior passed into the hands of Yves Saint Laurent.

Comments

Ann Carr from SW England on October 03, 2019:

Yes! What goes around comes around, though usually with a twist. Fashion says so much about society.

Ann

Dolores Monet (author) from East Coast, United States on October 02, 2019:

Hi Ann - glad you enjoyed! I find it so interesting how after the time of great frugality, Dior went whole hog on the New Look. While it seemed wonderful I get how some people were upset as rationing and frugality were still in place. But the historic look of those tiny waists and wide skirts so remind me of the mid 1800s!

Ann Carr from SW England on October 02, 2019:

Beauty, elegance and simplicity - a great combination! I loved the look and it's wonderful that we still see it everywhere in clothes and perfume.

Interesting history and details, Dolores. You always create an informative fashion article. Thanks for the education as well as the glimpses of those wonderful clothes. Your passion for 'couture' shines through!

Ann

Dolores Monet (author) from East Coast, United States on October 01, 2019:

Hi Josephine - you can find vintage Dior garments as well as many other vintage designer brands online at several sites including eBay and etsy. In my own city (and hopefully in your area) some boutiques specialize in vintage items.

Josephine Elias on September 27, 2019:

Hi where in the US could find the Christian Dior cloths of old time

thank you

Dolores's interest in fashion history dates from her teenage years when vintage apparel was widely available in thrift stores.

Fashions of the 1970s were diverse, reflecting a new interest in clothing as self-expression. No single look encompassed the decade, which was a mixed bag of hippie/Bohemian, retro, and punk. The general silhouette was long and lean with lots of hair, a look for both sexes that gave the era an androgynous appeal. This was the time for uni-sex hair salons, a time when platform shoes appeared for both men and women, and both sexes wore high waisted pants and shag haircuts.

Early 1970s fashion continued 1960s themes of Pop Art, Op Art, and psychedelia with bold prints in bright colors and geometric designs. Bohemian styles of the hippies mixed Victorian with fantastic colors as well as with ethnic elements. Art Nouveau added a sinuous romance with the flowing natural lines of Mucha posters, then moved to Edwardian collars and long printed dresses with a lace of ruffled bib fronts.

The Civil Rights Movement of the recent past encouraged other groups to grasp at their own freedoms. Women's Liberation loosened the structures of uncomfortable undergarments and women's wear in general. The Gay Liberation Movement led to gender-bending styles and a feeling of self-determination. People felt free of social dictates, no longer ruled by the elite fashion houses.

The oil crisis led to the mid-1970s recession. A poor economy and unemployment of youth squeezed their pocketbooks. An educated youth looked for clothing that expressed their individuality, and for unique garments bought on the cheap.

1970's Androgyny

Looking at photographs of people in the 1970s, you can see that men and women sported similar styles. High rise pants that extended the waistline above the natural waist were worn by both sexes. The early 70s bell bottoms gave way to less exaggerated flare legged pants, then to straight legs by the end of the decade. Button-down shirts, short and long-sleeved T-shirts were worn tight and tucked in. Topped with flowing tresses, the look for young men and women was, essentially, the same.

Women wore pants more often than ever before. Pantsuits became common business attire for women and were paired with button-down shirts with large, pointy collars, and masculine jackets. Pussycat bows added a touch of femininity to women's blouses worn for dress or business.

Males began to sport flowing scarves, lipstick, and bright colors usually reserved for women.

The sexual awakening, along with Women's Lib and Gay Lib movements, suddenly gave cross-dressing a new appeal. Tim Curry's transvestite vampire in the 1975 film, Rocky Horror Picture Show, introduced a charmingly shocking new look and took androgyny to new heights in an ironic form of glamor.

Hippies and Bohemians

Ten years after Rachel Carson's Silent Spring, people were questioning the technological and chemical trappings of progress. A Back to the Earth culture introduced a new interest in rural living and handicrafts. Adherents of the ideal wore simple garments based on European peasant costume, American pioneer clothing, and ethnic styles. Shirts and dresses were loose, soft, and easy to sew. Worn with sandals, clogs, or boots, "granny" dresses, loosely based on Victorian and Edwardian styles, became so popular that they often showed up at weddings. Also known as Prairie style, the dresses featured tiered skirts, ruffles, and yoked tops.

Dashikis and Kaftans were comfortable yet attractive and carried forward the hippie look. Curly hair broke free of past restraints and the 1960s Afro became commonplace. Men and women grow out wild manes of curls in Pre Raphaelite styles.

Layered beads and bangles, lots of large rings were popular jewelry. A natural look de-emphasized makeup.

London's Boutiques and 70s Style

In the 1950s, independent designers began to open their own shops featuring unique styles for young people. By the 1960s, these designers helped London became a fashion hub.

Biba opened in the late 50s after an initial run as a mail-order business. Overwhelmed by consumer interest, Barbara Hulanicki offered affordable clothing, jewelry, and home goods to young ladies. By the early 1970s, the trendsetting Hulanicki needed to expand and opened a bigger Biba in a building with Art Deco interiors. She ushered in a trend toward Art Deco aimed toward her target shoppers: girls with big heads and small bodies.

John Bates, influenced by Pop Art and Op Art created garments with stripes and geometric shapes in stretchy jersey.

Ossie Clark's designs were picked up for stage wear by The Beatles, Mick Jagger, and Liza Minnelli.

Bill Gibb introduced romantic clothing based on historic looks from medieval to Renaissance styles. Incorporating Eastern European folk costume and hints of the Aesthetic Movement, he mixed and layered patterns in plaids and florals, creating an exciting, eclectic look that has reappeared ever since.

The poor economy of the mid-1970s shrunk the influence of the British Boutique scene. Young people were no longer able to afford even independent designer clothing. The influence of the London Boutique dwindled.

Laura Ashley, however, slipped into the mainstream and remained a commercial success. Her cotton floral print dresses with long sleeves, high necklines trimmed with lace were reminiscent of Victorian and Edwardian British country dress.

Laura Ashley Dresses

Thrift Stores as Fashion Hubs

As people looked to clothing for self-expression, they needed new places to shop for clothes. The recession of the mid-1970s put an educated youth out of work or working at odd or low paying jobs to make ends meet.

Thrift stores offered it all—unique garments for low prices. During the 70s, vintage clothing could be found for next to nothing. Dresses, jackets, coats, jewelry, and hats from the earlier in the century were mixed with jeans and other modern garments.

In those days of free TV, local stations often ran classic movies. Young people, enamored with films from the 1920s, 30s, and 40s could purchase old clothing to emulate the Golden Age of Hollywood. The retro look made it easy to look different.

Newer films like The Great Gatsby in 1974 and Cabaret in 1972 influenced fashion trends. Yves St. Laurent's 1971 collection drew heavily on women's fashions of the 1940s.

Disco Fashion

In the 1960s, young people flocked to dance clubs called discotheques. The French word evolved into Disco, a new brand of music and a subculture first popularized by African American and Latino youth.

In the 70s, urban young people, sick of hippies and wary of the arty retro scene, looked for glamor at the dance clubs. A unique fashion sprang up around the sound. Women wore halter dresses or hot pants made of satiny fabrics, decorated with sequins. Men wore tight, shiny pants and tucked in shirts opened halfway down the chest. Gold necklaces or medallions completed the look.

The Disco life was portrayed in the 1977 film Saturday Night Fever that featured popular music of the genre.

Punk

Doc Martins

Punk

The recession of the mid-1970s toned down the fantastical whimsey of earlier styles. A beleaguered working-class mentality led toward a tougher mood of antisocial reaction. Rebelling against the hippie movement and high culture, Punk embraced the trashier aspects of society based on a low-class delinquent culture. Torn pants, black clothing, choppy haircuts, and chains as jewelry epitomized a youth that felt marginalized by unemployment and a dim future.

Tight black pants featured large zippers, straps, and studs. Women who wore miniskirts paired them with torn fishnet stockings. Large work boots or exaggerated platforms, and Doc Martin boots made people look tough, yet interesting. Wild hair molded into spikes or teased out was often dyed bright unnatural colors—greens or bright shades of pink. Faces were pale, accentuated by dark eyes and dark red or black lipstick.

The New York art crowd took up this new urban style. Punk became a significant influence on fashion for many years and still can be seen on runways today.

The designer Zandra Rhodes looked to London street styles and ethnic Bohemian fashion to create couture versions with gypsy and Eastern European themes. In the late 1970s, her adaptations of Punk hit the runway in high-end garments for the very elite that the originators of the style rebelled against.

The Ugly Side of 1970s Fashion

Cheap knock-offs of early 70s high-end designs appeared in department stores and the newer discount stores in synthetic materials like polyester, cheap jerseys, and blends. The ugly side of the 70s produced geometric prints in bright orange, lurid shades of green, and muddy brown. High waisted, plaid polyester pants became an iconic garment for people who now laugh at 70s fashions.

The thankfully short-lived leisure suit gave a twist to men's casual wear. Polyester suits trimmed with contrasting stitching sported wide lapels and came in bright or pastel colors. The concept that bright colors weren't just for women saw men adorned in baby blue, orange, mauve, and chartreuse. Loud or pastel colors showed up in tuxedos at weddings, often paired with matching shirts that sported rows of ruffles.

The Me Generation

The 1970s brought forward many looks of the 1960s. An eclectic mix of styles made personal choice fashionable and changed the world of fashion forever. Men and women were no longer herded into a particular style. The Bohemian concept of the self as a work of art offered intriguing garments and mixtures of clothing as well as mixtures of pattern and color. But the self-interest of the 70s created a concept of narcissism that led the writer Tom Wolfe to call the 1970s, "the me generation."

© 2014 Dolores Monet

I'm an aspiring costume designer with a passion for creative writing, history, and feminism.

American Women's Fashion History

Clothes make the man, as the old adage goes. A well-tailored suit tells a very different story than torn jeans and a sweatshirt, but both stories are vital when trying to understand the evolution of fashion and the impact it has made. Regardless of whether or not we like it, fashion has played an intrinsic role in shaping society. It is a way to understand the world and those who came before us.

For instance, different fashion trends are a marker of status as well as a window into attitudes toward gender roles, sexuality, and body image. Clothes may make the man, but they make the woman as well. In fact, clothes often molded her and constricted her into a form that she may not have wanted for herself. Clothes have empowered her and encouraged her to achieve her own sense of autonomy. They have objectified her and reduced her into nothing more than a trinket at which men can stare. They have given her power and a taste of what she is capable of doing.

Colonial Women's Fashion: Family & Practicality

When discussing the impact of anything on a nation’s history, the most logical place to start is at the beginning. There are, of course, centuries prior to European colonization in which Native American tribes developed methods and modes for dressing themselves that are varied and intriguing on their own, but they have little to do with the modern modes of fashion as we know them today. The focus will instead turn toward fashion modes of European settlers – specifically those that hailed from England – for whom the New World held promises of freedom from religious persecution and a bright future potentially full of riches, though despite the prospect of a shining new future, colonists carried over a few societal norms from their home that remained firmly in place in their new settlements. Gender relations, for instance, reflected that of the roles established in the motherland: New England women were expected to maintain order in the household by caring for children and acting as a moral compass by which to follow, preparing meals as well as performing other household chores. Despite her numerous responsibilities and power in the home, a woman was always expected to be subordinate and obedient to her husband. Families were ideally little commonwealths with the father taking the role of a monarch while the rest of his family acted as his subjects -- the general belief here being that a successfully run home would facilitate a successful society.

New Englanders had an understanding that men and women’s characters were defined by a specific set of distinct yet complementary traits. Women were overly sexual, disorderly, and prone to hysteria and the lures of evil, but their positive traits included cheerfulness, tenderness, and a capacity to be sympathetic and passionate. Since it was a woman’s task to keep her family thriving in this unexplored wilderness, such virtues were nothing more than expectation rather than reality. Their clothing, like their societal ideals, reflected a simplified version of what was fashionable in England at the time. Their clothing was designed for practicality in a harsh new wilderness rather than style. Fabric was hand woven to ensure durability and most early New Englanders only owned a few garments for their entire lifetimes, only saving their best for special occasions and church services. They were no strangers to an array of colors despite what the general stereotypical image of a New England pilgrim may lead one to believe. On the contrary, the stereotypical, somber appearance of colonists did not appear until the colonies were beginning to thrive. In a prosperous and environment, people were now able to turn their attention to such frivolities as fashion to display their wealth and comfort. As a response to such brazen and apparently immoral displays of refinery, Puritans attempted to enforce laws that brought simplicity to an extreme by eliminating any sort of decorative feature, leading to a distinctive style to call their own.

Women's Fashion Trends and Styles in the 18th & 19th Centuries

Despite the Puritans’ best efforts, fashion continued to play a large role in most colonials' lives the more the colonies grew and prospered. While women wore hoods and mantles to maintain their modesty when in public, such garments were made of fine fabrics that not only acted as a testament to their piety, but to their status. The most notable garment to come out of the century was the hoop skirt, which would become a staple of women’s fashion for years. Originally, the hoop skirt protruded out from the sides but gradually became rounder and more bell-shaped, though no matter how large or oddly shaped the garment may have been, it always gave women a grossly unnatural figure that they were expected to obtain. Adding to the extravagant and outlandish silhouettes were ladies’ hairstyles. Initially, hairstyles stayed simple and women typically adorned their heads with a frilled lawn cap, but by the end of the century, their dainty coiffures gave way to wigs worn exclusively for evening affairs. These elaborate wigs required women to often sleep while sitting up the night before an event to prevent the wig from losing its magnificence. The sheer notion that a woman had to attempt to sleep in an uncomfortable position with an undoubtedly cumbersome wig sitting atop her head illustrates the great lengths to which people have gone through for the sake of fashion and beauty. However, that focus on status and elegance began to fade with the Revolution. Suddenly a dependency on European trends did not seem patriotic in the least. Women began weaving their own cloth and wore homespun clothes in public, an act that would have been an immediate marker of low status in the past that was now considered a symbol of pride and dedication to the nation.

The Evolution of Women's Fashion in the 19th Century

The nineteenth century brought in a new phase of American life that stressed religious freedom, an elimination of class distinction and a rejection of old ideas in many respects. Women were still bound in corsets, but they were less constricting and they abandoned their heels in favor of “Roman sandals,” which were nothing more than slippers tied at the ankle with ribbons. The spencer, or a small jacket with long, tight sleeves typically made of dark velvet, made its appearance during this era, as well. In 1819, women’s empire-waist skirts morphed into large, bell shapes that were often adorned with rows of trimming. Stuffed and wired sleeves humorously referred to as the “leg o’ mutton sleeve” offered an illusion of broader shoulders and copious amounts of ornamentation were back in vogue.

In the nineteenth century, a woman's role as the pure and pious leader of her family was especially heightened, and the most conspicuous way a woman could prove her piety was through the way she dressed, but her style also had to reflect her status and level of wealth. Hoop skirts were still wildly popular, for instance, because they enabled women to parade around in as much expensive fabric as possible. They had to be careful, then, as they constantly had to teeter along a fine line between excellent self-presentation and the risk of being labeled as a slave to fashion. Though since the practice of tight-lacing corsets (which was still rampantly popular in the South) reinforced a woman’s sense of dependency, as she could hardly dress or undress herself without assistance, it is difficult to argue that women were anything but slaves to their clothes.

Skirts flared out and bustles disappeared and reappeared throughout the century, leading to a slew of unique and peculiar silhouettes. Overall, fashion of the nineteenth century was meant to reflect modesty while still maintaining a sense of style, a goal that became especially difficult for women who decided to bid goodbye to their New England homes and make the trek out West. The move Westward was accompanied by a desperate struggle to maintain a higher status and keep within traditional roles. Simply put, most women did not want to be subjected to the difficult tasks that awaited them on the trail. They refused to wear trousers for fear of being labeled too masculine or out of fear of losing their civility. Remaining in their petticoats for as long as possible became a way for these women to signal they were prepared to return to their feminine sphere once their journey was over.

Women who stayed home, however, began to realize the extent to which their fashion objectified them and put them at risk. The anti-slavery movement inspired women such as Elizabeth Phelps to press for dress reform. Women such as Phelps demanded liberation from the limitations thrust upon them by society and fashion, urging women to throw off their shackles just as the slaves had theirs.

The Bloomer Outfit

Dress reformers began openly condemning fashion for the health and moral dangers it posed to women. They pressed for reform for healthy and comfortable clothing, which brought about the bloomer outfit. Such an outfit of course was met with much anxiety since people feared it would destroy society’s morals. Though regardless of the fear it may have sparked, the bloomer outfit served as a preview of what was to come in the following years, particularly regarding the way women viewed themselves and their place.

20th Century Fashion: A New Woman

At the turn of the century, America was experiencing rapid urbanization and industrialization. To look at the country as a whole unit at this time, one would see waves of immigrants arriving and countless city dwellers being forced to clump together into crowded slums infamous for high rates of disease and infant mortality. Massive migrations to cities meant that women lost established support systems, resulting in alienation for some and liberation for others. In an environment where young women were isolated from their families and very much left to fend for themselves, women needed to adapt. Thus the New Woman emerged: independent, active, mobile, and self-confident, nothing could stop her and her fashion had to emulate that.

Women’s fashion was altogether more daring and wealthier women were expected to change their clothes three or four times a day. By the beginning of the decade, the perfectly coiffured and slender “Gibson Girl” style that had previously dominated women’s fashion was slowly fading, as women were growing increasingly unwilling to submit themselves to the tortures of the corset, which at the time were made of heavyweight cotton, twill, and reinforced with steel or whalebone to contour the body into an “S” shape, effectively accentuating the bust. Finding her fashion choices limited, a woman by the name of Mary Phelps Jacob created a prototype for the brassiere in 1913, which soon rose in popularity amongst other women looking to become this new, active woman. Ironically, a popular garment that also gained popularity was a tight fitting skirt that greatly limited the wearer’s stride known as a “hobble skirt.” They were popular among urban women until public dancing became the rage for the population in 1915. Sports attire became popular since it flattered women’s bodies while allowing them to move freely. An emphasis was certainly placed on this new, mobile woman, though she was still expected to maintain some air of femininity.

People who were able to flaunt their wealth did so through extravagant and costly accessories that were necessary for anyone who viewed herself as fashionable. Hats, usually adorned with a large variety of ornamentation, were a staple for every woman regardless of economic status. The spread of automobile travel furthered the change in fashion since there was now a need for women to easily enter, sit in and exit vehicles. This led to entirely new outfits comprising of gloves, caps, and goggles for both women and men.

The elegance and need to flaunt one’s status and wealth was short lived once the First World War began in 1914. In a way, the war helped to accelerate the ideal image of the New Woman as well as the changes women were trying to make in society, as a number of women had to take up men’s responsibilities in the workforce. As a result, working women needed practical clothing. Style was simplified while skirts were shortened, resulting in a tailored suit that became essential for women at the time.

Women's Fashion Trends in the 1920s

Although women lost their jobs when men returned from war, nothing could stop them from careening into the public sphere now that they had a taste of life outside their homes. Jazz bombarded the public’s ears and the Charleston invaded every dance hall. The 1920s was a zooming decade filled with fast cars, flowing bootlegged booze, and an entire generation of women that refused to return home. Regardless of women’s wishes to continue working, a new sort of feminism that supported old, patriarchal expectations of a woman’s place emerged that supported an image of a woman who was well-dressed, openly liked men, avoided women in groups, and instinctively knew that “a full life calls for marriage and children as well as a career.”

The youth of the 1920s were more educated than their mothers and enjoyed a freer life filled with romance and sex, and to separate themselves from their mothers, young women needed a new style to call their own. Sexually free young women who would come to be known as flappers acted as both competition and companions to men and soon adopted a style of dress that gave them a lanky, boyish silhouette. The flapper’s skirt was short and streamline, which gave women an excuse to part with layers of undergarments. To ensure every curve disappeared, women would bind their chests, harkening back to the days of corsets and demonstrating the extreme and unhealthy lengths to which women will go to achieve the ideal body image thrust upon them. It is pausing to reflect on the practice and to think that women had to literally repress their femininity in order to be accepted. Though for women of the 1920s, a few suppressing undergarments were most likely a small price to pay in exchange for the power these women could dangle over men’s heads. Unfortunately for them, their short time in the limelight would quickly wear out.

How Women's Fashion Changed With the Depression

The crash of 1929 brought everyone’s highballing life to a skidding halt. The flappers had hopefully enjoyed their youthful gaiety while it lasted, for now it was time to grow up. Since the 1930s brought about a notion that thinness indicated extreme poverty, straight boyish silhouettes were retired seemingly overnight in favor of much more natural forms. Waistlines and prominent bosoms returned due in part to the ideal body type set in place by silver-screen starlet Mae West, most likely to the delight of many. Skirts got progressively longer, though backs were left bare for evening affairs. The ideal woman was to be simultaneously curvaceous and slender and in an effort to emulate such a realistic and achievable ideal, women’s clothing was expected to be streamline and form fitting without a single thread out of place. Despite a return to a plumper figure as an ideal sign of prosperity, high fashion took a back seat to the desperate economic crisis. While displaying fine clothes was surely a goal for many to flaunt their wealth and attempt to relive the good old days of decades prior, to fuss over one’s wardrobe simply was not practical for most American women, a sentiment that would bleed into the next decade.

The 1940s were a time defined by war, where men left home and women were required to take over their duties whether they wanted to or not. The war affected everything, including fashion since the need to ration goods and materials impeded on the ability to create specific or unique styles. In an effort to conserve fabric, clothes were simplified in every way possible: fewer pockets and buttons made it onto garments, ruffles or any ornamentation were abandoned, and sleeves and hemlines grew shorter. Many women turned to Mexico to buy dresses since they were cheaper, which inspired designers to incorporate colorful patterns into their clothes. Rationing also inspired many to make their own clothing, harkening back to a simpler time when clothing only served as necessity rather than a luxury. Women got creative, too, as the shortage of wool led them to repurpose men’s suits into women’s attire. The refashioned suits still possessed a masculine silhouette, giving them a boxy appearance with wide shoulders and skirts that did away with the narrow waists of yesteryear. Women began wearing pants as well since they offered even greater functionality and mobility than their skirts could offer. Pants especially rose in popularity since working in factories around heavy machinery while wearing a skirt simply was not practical. Their fashion needed to adapt to their new lifestyle, which meant it was time to bid those dresses goodbye and say hello to a nice pair of functional slacks.

Dior's "New Look" in 1947

Feminine clothes did not completely disappear during wartime for those who could afford to enjoy evenings out, however. Long dresses still ruled the night and were often adorned with sequins to add some sparkle. Homemade clothing may have paved the way to a style that was quintessentially American, but France was ready to return to its traditional pedestal when they finally recovered from the war, at which point Christian Dior introduced a style dubbed “the New Look” in 1947, which was characterized by accentuated waists, billowing skirts and an ultra-feminine silhouette. The need for excess petticoats to pull off the full skirts of Dior’s New Look suggests the style was anything but new, but its clear throwback toward femininity stands as a direct reaction and retaliation to the functionality of wartime fashion. Rosie the Riveter, although born out of necessity rather than empowerment, was a direct threat to men and their place in society. She was traditionally masculine in her style and in her attitude, which meant she had to go.

Women's Fashion in the 1950s: Happy Housewives

By the end of the war, family life had never looked more appealing. Society suddenly found itself returning to a patriarchal sense of the home where Rosie the Riveter could not have been more out of place. Now that men were returning from war, there was no reason for women to continue participating in the work force, though that did not stop some women from working regardless of what men had to say about it. To combat the fear that women would steal jobs away from men, propaganda began to be released detailing the wonderful, romantic ideal of a life at home. Many women took the bait, thus returning to their traditional roles and much more traditional fashion. The 1950s carried on the same trends as decades prior with a growing popularity in mass-produced items that made life easier, especially for women’s domestic work.

In 1956, a new style known as the shift dress made its way into many American homes. Initially mocked and dubbed the “sack dress” for its shapeless design, women nonetheless bought the style in droves, apparently attracted to its lack of a defined waistline. The mockery directed toward the dress is a poignant example of when the ideal image does not match the real image of the modern American woman. It stands as a clear example of society’s expectations over women of the time: that they ought to extenuate their femininity through form-fitting clothes.

The dress’s popularity among women could be interpreted as a sign of changing attitudes and a desire for anything but a constricting waistline, but the shift dress was, apparently, only reserved for housewives who thought it easier to go about their daily routine. Career women, on the other hand, preferred to cater to society’s expectations of the ultra-feminine woman by sporting tailored suits over silk blouses – a refined silhouette that was often pulled together with gloves, a hat, and an essential pair of heels. Women continued to burden themselves with girdles, corsets, stockings, slips, and the occasional petticoat. Fashion of the fifties, for the most part, was conservative and constricting – possibly the most constricting it had been since the Victorian era. The shift dress undoubtedly came as a welcome blessing to some, but its presence was certainly an exception to the rule.

Youthful fashion for girls stayed very much in stride with their mothers with flowing skirts, tiny waists and an altogether preppy air. Some edgier styles managed to sneak through the woodwork and challenge fashion norms such as the greaser look or the controversial short-shorts of the late 1950s. In an era where conservatism ruled, it is no small wonder that short shorts were deemed immodest and resulted in revised dress codes across the nation. One could take a step back and chuckle at the authorities of yesteryear while thinking ‘how foolish,’ but the controversy surrounding the style is better suited as a hint of a re-emerging fear of female sexuality, offering up a bizarre duality between femininity and sensuality: that women must be sexually attractive but not sexual.

How Women's Fashion Changed in the 60s

There was something in the air during the 1960s: a flavor of discontent with the way society was treating its citizens that would spill into the next decade. The women’s liberation movement was crawling forward as women began to gain rights legally, culturally, and socially. Feminist Betty Friedan planted a seed for ideological change with her book The Feminine Mystique that inspired many women, especially those who were young and unmarried, to take charge of their own bodies. Sex was once again in style so, naturally, American fashion would slowly begin to reflect that.

Jacqueline Kennedy stood out as the most public supporter of traditional French haute couture, but her imitators were mostly found among the wealthy. The majority of Americans instead embraced a fashion that was minimalist and primitive. A woman of the 1960s would typically wear long, floor length skirts or dresses during the day and mini-skirts when taking on the town at night, which presents and interesting swap from traditionally long and more provocative evening dresses and shorter daytime wear. The switch makes perfect sense considering youth of the decade wanted nothing more than to separate themselves from the older generation in every way possible. The mini-skirt provided an especially strange dichotomy that both objectified and empowered women. The skirt’s scandalous length that had remained unseen until now gave men an opportunity to ogle at gratuitous amounts of bare legs while simultaneously providing power to the women wearing them. The mini-skirt was undoubtedly a sexually charged garment, but in its sexual appeal, it became a source of power for women as well as a sign that modesty was for the old folks.

Fashion During the Age of Aquarius

The growing dissent toward the Vietnam War added more fuel to the anti-Establishment fire, leading to a vehement disregard of societal values and morals that would give rise to hippie-fashion. Instead of conforming to traditional dress norms, hippies often appropriated symbols from cultures outside of their own to inspire their style, giving fashion a deeper meaning as a political statement rather than a simple popular fad. Mainstream fashion continued the trends set by the mini-skirt to bear as much of the body as possible with sleeveless, nearly transparent dresses and hot pants, though the most unique feature of fashion early in the decade was the lack of common conformity. Some women wore long flowing dresses and sandals while others rocked micro-minis and knee-high boots. Some people turned to more conservative, put-together pieces while others continued to strut around in sloppy hippie fashions, resulting in a massive sense of individualism that would begin to ebb as the decade came to a close. By 1977, women were turning to oversized and free-flowing garments that suggested the country desired a return toward conservatism.

Fashion Trends of the 1980s: Be a Man

The shift toward conservative ideals in the 1980s served as a direct reaction to the radical civil rights movements that rocked America. The Supreme Court whittled down previous victories such as Roe v. Wade and affirmative action to the point where the courts seemed to suggest that discrimination was no longer an issue. Conservatism ruled and if women wanted to be taken seriously in the workforce, they needed to adopt a more masculine style. Most people alive to this day still remember or at least have heard stories about shoulder pads no matter how much they want to forget. The interesting, and partially demoralizing, aspect of the trend known as “power dressing”, though, is the fact that doing so was meant to emulate men’s broad shoulders, suggesting one must emulate a man in order to be successful. Power dressing, then, stands as a mockery toward any progress women had made.

The Evolution of Women's Fashion in the 1990s: Into the Future

Androgynous fashion would continue into the 1990s, but a unique feature of styles at end of the century was a seemingly direct parallel of the previous century’s end. Where women of the 1900s strolled about in flowing skirts that grazed the floor, women at the end of the twentieth century and beyond bared every inch of skin they could without violating public indecency laws. Such trends continued into the twenty-first century in varying degrees, some mild and some more extreme than the rest. Two trends worth noting in this most recent era are the trend of transparency in several different garments – most notably blouses and skirts – and the large presence of studs decorating everything from shoes to headbands to jean shorts. Artist Danielle Licea noted that studs are the closest thing women will get to possessing armor to protect themselves in a world so plagued with violence. On the other hand, transparent clothing that displays colorful bandeaus or simply a woman’s bra under the garment can either be interpreted as objectifying women, or it could be seen as embracing women’s sexuality and a move toward a healthier stance toward body positivity. Though it is fascinating to watch how fashion reacts to the social climate surrounding it, it is perhaps far too early to pass judgment on the greater influence fashion while said fashions are still alive and strong.

Perhaps it is time to return to and question that old adage once more: clothes make the man, they say. While it is true that men’s fashion held a level of importance amongst American society, its significance pales in comparison to that of women’s fashion, which altered so radically and much more frequently than men’s clothing. Women’s fashion has constantly fluctuated between practicality and vanity. It has taken on many forms, many meanings and has been received with mixed feelings by their contemporaries. It has been used as a tool to conform to the societal mold as much as it has been used to challenge and break it, resulting in a colorful history that is still and will continue to change as long as fashion remains a fundamental extension of one’s identity.

Referenced Works

• Banner, Lois W. Women in Modern America: A Brief History. Orlando, FL: Harcourt Brace & Company, 1995.
• Blanke, David. American Popular Culture Through History: The 1910s. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2002.
• Fukai, Akiko. Fashion : a history from the 18th to the 20th century : the collection of the Kyoto Costume Institute . Los Angeles: Taschen, 2006.
• Kunzle, David. Fashion and Fetishism: a social history of the corset, tight-lacing, and other forms of body-sculpture in the West. Totowa, NJ: Rowman & Littlefield, 1982.
• Marty, Myron A. Daily Life in the United States, 1960-1990: Decades of Discord. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1997.
• Sickels, Robert. American Popular Culture Through History: The 1940s. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2004.
• Wilcox, R. Turner. Five Centuries of American Costume. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1963.
• Young, William H. American Popular Culture Through History: The 1950s. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2004.

Comments

yug7hygyuyu on February 10, 2020:

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Bidoludünya on October 30, 2014:

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Bridget (author) from California on October 22, 2014:

Wow thank you everyone for such positive comments! I'm so glad you all like the hub!

Pinky de Garcia on October 22, 2014:

This article is better than a music flashback. While reading your hub, I feel like living in the past.It's good to know the fashion of my great grandma.Thumbs up!

Bridget (author) from California on October 20, 2014:

Thank you! It amazes me too, that there is so much unique content and creative minds here. I'm glad you enjoyed my piece!

MarieLB from YAMBA NSW on October 20, 2014:

Hi #Birdie Ryan, what a refreshingly different topic. It never ceases to amaze me [I have not been here long either] what a variety of people and of topics there is on this site. As time goes on I am realising what a massive task Admin must have to keep us in line.. ..ha!Ha!!

Back to your article, you have given me such an insight into your world. Beautifully done. Will look forward to more from you.

Besarien from South Florida on October 19, 2014:

I love fashion and especially the history of fashion. I hope you keep adding to this hub!

Dolores's interest in fashion history dates from her teenage years when vintage apparel was widely available in thrift stores.

Classic movies have created fashions and reflected the trends of any given time. Though fashion is, by definition changeable, certain costumes worn in film to help create a character have become iconic garments that appear again and again over the years gracing the pages of fashion magazines.

Look at any fashion show and you will see couture apparel that has been influenced by famous movie roles from Holly Golightly"s little black dress in Breakfast at Tiffany's to Susan's wildly eclectic pile of accessories in Desperately Seeking Susan. Fashion has inspired movies and been inspired by movies. Signature roles like Joan Crawford's flapper in Our Dancing Daughters have defined a decade and suggested a particular identity.

Movies offered a fantasy of glamor to downtrodden women during the Great Depression, have made trousers into acceptable women's clothing, created the power suit years before its time, and illustrated what it's like to be a woman in all her various guises for almost a century.

In the early years, actors during the Silent Era of film usually provided their own wardrobe. By the 1920s costume designers worked with both director and actor to create garments that would best suit the character of a particular role. Actors often influenced costume design. Clothing had to be a good fit for the actor's physical attributes and flaws. Soon, stars came to be associated with an image and a well known star in a popular role often inspired fashion trends.

Hollywood costuming, even for period pieces, often reflect fashion ideals of the day rather than the period in which the original piece was written. The 1921 film Camille was based on Our Lady of the Camilias, a play originally produced in 1848. Costumes updated the story with wardrobes inspired by Paul Poiret and incorporated influences of Ballet Russes costumes for an exotic and modern appeal.

While there are many movies that highlight fashionable costumes, there are a few that really stand out. In these movies, you can glean the essence of a decade and understand what the people of yesteryear found attractive and the types of clothes that became popular.

Our Dancing Daughters (1928)

In a film that depicts the lives of three young women living and partying in the Jazz Age, the flapper style followed trend setters of the time. Dorothy Sebastian, Anita Page, and Joan Crawford wore flimsy dresses, loose clothing, high hemlines and bobbed hair. Our Dancing Daughters was one of the first films to be marketed for fashion. The girls paraded around in sportswear, bathing suits, and negligees. They sported plucked eyebrows and cupid bow mouths. Joan Crawford danced up a storm and regarded the world with a faintly bitter expression.

F Scott Fitzgerald named Crawford as the best example of a flapper.

The flapper style soon died out. By 1929, hems were lower but the unique fashion trend we call the flapper became a cultural icon.

A Woman of Affairs (1928)

When Greta Garbo appeared in A Woman of Affairs in a plaid lined trench coat, a garment introduced to the military during World War I, she brought us a look that has never gone out of style. Her slouchy, casual appearance still inspires us today.

Garbo's somewhat masculine style bent typical gender based fashion ideals and gave us a new kind of classic. The Garbo look set the stage for actresses like Katharine Hepburn and predated Annie Hall by almost a half a century.

Morocco (1930)

In Marlene Dietrich's first US movie, she appears in top hat and tails as a cabaret singer in a North African nightclub. Publicized as the new Garbo, Dietrich's costumes were inspired by Berlin's drag clubs of the early 1930s. Trousers were still an unusual garment for women, yet Dietrich appeared in men's suits for publicity shots.

Marlene Dietrich impressed theater goes with the ability to seem seductive even while wearing a tuxedo. She shocked audiences when she kissed a woman in the days before censorship came to rule what could be shown in popular films.

Costume designer Travis Banton portrayed Amy Jolly's strength as well as vulnerability in a range of costumes that included a sleek black evening gown and a soft white blouse and skirt.

Dancing Lady (1933)

Joan Crawford makes the jump from flapper to sophisticated women in a series of costume changes that set trends and engendered department store copies. For Dancing Lady designer Adrian saw that Crawford's shoulders were wide and decided, instead of trying to play them down, to accentuate the look with shoulder pads or alter tops. Wide athletic shoulders and slim hips came into style in this rags to riches tale.

Queen Christina (1933)

When Greta Garbo appeared as Queen Christina, heavy velvet jackets with jutting white collars and bishop sleeves showed up in boyish coats with nipped waistlines at department stores. Department store copies followed the film's release and women opted for the Garbo page boy hair cut similar to Margot's in The Royal Tenenbaums.

Christina's comment that she was less an old maid than a bachelor touched on gender issues still rarely addressed in film.

Cleopatra (1934)

Claudette Colbert's racy get-ups in her role as the Queen of the Nile inspired the fashion world with its bias-cut dresses, Egyptian collars, and lotus flower motifs. Suddenly, thanks to Cleopatra, bangs were all the rage.

Philadelphia Story (1940)

Katharine Hepburn's slim figure and athletic style of movement gave her a tom-boyish femininity that looked fabulous in slacks or in a Grecian goddess style white crepe dress that was banded with gold.

Hepburn's Tracy Lord mixed a cool cream striped suit with a playful knit hat and tassels. Both the star and the character she played slipped outside the mainstream of fashion while creating a new classic style that was fearless and elegant.

Fashions may change from year to year, but Hepburn gave us the concept of personal style. Whether in film or in real life, Katharine Hepburn was an original.

Casablanca (1942)

Ingrid Bergman's Ilsa brought us the look of the 1940s with simple suits and white blouses, natural makeup and eyebrows. Bergman gave us classy without being dressed up in the toned down style that would epitomize fashion during the years of World War II when fabric restrictions and the demands of the military created a new look that changed women's apparel forever.

To Have and Have Not (1944)

Lauren Bacall was sexy without glamor or fuss. With her cool attitude and long sweep of hair, it was all about the face and The Look. Her elegant strength and husky voice offered a new kind of sex appeal that cut away the frippery with a smooth sophistication that is as charming today as it was in 1944.

Young women copied her interesting streaked hair worn long with a slight wave. The way she had of tilting her head down and looking up became an iconic mannerism.

Mildred Pierce (1945)

By 1945, Joan Crawford was considered a has-been. But this rags to riches classic earned her an Oscar for her portrayal of a housewife who becomes a wealthy restaurateur. Crawford appears in toned down makeup, a big change from her past overdone eyebrows and exaggerated mouth.

Mildred's metamorphosis is highlighted by 29 costume changes from cotton house dress and apron to structured business power suits with wide shoulders topped by a fur coat. Her outfits are simple yet stylish in keeping with World War II era fashions.

Gilda (1946)

Rita Hayworth brought glamor back in this story of an abused floozie. The war was over and Gilda's luxurious silks and slit skirts, her strapless gowns and simple lines were celebratory, glitzy, and so much fun to watch.

Gilda's seductive dress worn when she sings "Put the Blame on Mame" was a beautiful gown with simple lines and no fluff or embellishments, bold yet understated. The dress on the right has padded shoulders and a lotus motif. Like Lauren Bacall in To Have and Have Not, long hair became so sexy.

A Place in the Sun (1951)

By 1951, teenagers had become consumers and a target for marketing apparel, movies, and music. Early teen idol Elizabeth Taylor stared as a teen socialite whose white, full skirted evening dress showed up at proms all over the country.

Edith Head referred to the wardrobe as middle of the road yet portrayed the latest in teen fashion including bathing suits, shirts and jeans with young men appearing in Hawaiian shirts and chinos.

To Catch a Thief and Rear Window (1954)

If you like fashions of the 1950s, you have to see these two films. Grace Kelly stared in both movies playing young women of class with little make up and cool elegance. She sported a tan in To Catch a Thief.

Director Alfred Hitchcock told costume designer Edith Head that France (where they filmed) invented style and it was Head's job to create a stylish, wealthy young woman. Her tailored sundresses, capri pants, and big sunglasses were the hot look of the day. Kelly could pull off looking sophisticated in sportswear and casual in a black and white capri pants outfit worn with an over-skirt and wide brimmed hat.

In Rear Window, Kelly is a vision of beauty inspired by Christian Dior's New Look, designed for the film by Edith Head. Her wide skirts, a tiny waistline worm with a tight top were the height of '50's fashion. In a movie with, basically, a one room set, Kelly filled the room with her grace and style.

Roman Holiday (1953), Sabrina (1954), and Breakfast at Tiffany's (1961)

Audrey Hepburn offered a totally new kind of cool. The female silhouette of the 1950s was an hourglass figure that emphasized the bust, a tiny waistline, and curvaceous hips. Audry was thin and certainly not the traditional type of Hollywood beauty. Her gamine looks, rail thin figure, and dancer's stance created an identity that gave us an innocent kind of elegance.

In Roman Holiday Aurdrey was dressed in a blouse with rolled sleeves and a tight neck scarf to disguise her skinny arms and neck. As a princess who takes the day off to live like a real person, Audrey could not really hide the fact that she was someone special. Not the essence of traditional beauty, she taught us that, just as the princess appeared as a common person; a common girl could make herself into a princess.

In Sabrina a young and uncredited Herbert de Givenchy designed a double breasted suit for Sabrina's homecoming from Paris, a ball gown, and a black cocktail dress with a bateau neck that came to be known as a "Sabrina neckline." (A bateau neckline is straight, horizontal and also called a boat neck)

In 1961, Audrey's role as Holly Golightly delighted the world of fashion. From the black evening gown worn at the opening of the film to her famous little black dress, her dowdy raincoat worn with tight slacks, and flat shoes - Audrey Hepburn created a style that has inspired us for over 60 years and remains an iconic look today.

Rosemary's Baby (1968)

Mia Farrow appeared in this classic tale of paranoia wearing baby-doll style mini dresses, neat tailored minis, and tent dresses with Peter Pan collars. Her winter garb of a turtle neck sweater worn with a long plaid maxi skirt was a sleek new look. Everyone suddenly needed a long plaid skirt. Her hair switch from smooth page boy to short pixie created a gamine kind of femininity reminiscent of Audrey Hepburn.

She appeared innocent in a wardrobe and set design that consists mostly of white, yellow, and blue. (The kitchen is fabulous. Except for the curtains, it would look great in a modern decorating magazine. The subway tiled backsplash and marble counters...but I digress)

Bonnie and Clyde (1967)

Before Bonnie and Clyde, fashions of a particular period were usually dictated by a particular silhouette and hemline. Fay Dunnaway's costumes in this 1930s period piece did not strictly adhere to the styles of the Great Depression but were an updated version of the fashion of those days.

Theodore Van Runkle gave us a Bonnie wearing mid-calf length hems paired with a long sweater or jacket. Skirts sported a 30's style bias cut that allowed the fabric to swing prettily as she moved. Neck scarves and berets completed a look that changed everything. Young women no longer had to look like little kids in their mini skirts and bows. Retro style was here to stay.

Cabaret (1972)

When Liza Minnelli played Sally Bowles in Cabaret she introduced a style that has stayed with us ever since. Sally gave us green nail polish and black, black hair. Her sometimes masculine attire played up a decadent femininity reminiscent of Marlene Dietrich.

With her tilted bowler hat and structured bob haircut, her satin halter tops, vests, and fingerless gloves, Liza as Sally was a precursor of punk style and vintage fashion, and today's return to burlesque.

Annie Hall (1977)

Conjuring up Greta Garbo in her menswear clothing, Diane Keaton introduced a character named Annie Hall who ignored fashion yet set trends. In a combination of Buster Keaton and Katharine Hepburn Annie Hall's androgynous style featured baggy trousers, vest, a tie, and floppy hats. Her fashion forward appeal came from second hand shops that set a trend for vintage clothing.

Unlike previous roles in older movies that featured women dressed in mannish clothing, Annie Hall was not assertive and bold but insecure and a bit silly.

Flashdance (1983)

Flashdance epitomized the sometimes too casual style of the 1980s. While we may recall the the 80's for power suits with football player shoulder pads, down dressing filled America's streets with ripped sweat shirts and leg warmers. Before Flashdance, who would have thought to wear leg warmers with pumps? Barrettes harnessed huge, permed hairdos and suddenly, the clothing we wore to exercise became street wear.

Desperately Seeking Susan (1985)

Madonna and Roseanna Arquette described a popular street fashion of New York City in her gritty days with crazy pairings of a mixed bag of thrift store, second hand costumes. Odd mixes of capri pants worn with long evening gloves; bold color combinations; lacy underwear; and stacks of necklaces and bangles defined a rebellious, fun loving, and somewhat tawdry appeal.

The Royal Tenenbaums (2001)

Gwyneth Paltrow gave us a quirky new kind of class as Margot Tenenbaum. With her sleek page boy hair cut worn with plastic clips, striped Lacoste tennis dress worn with a fur coat and loafers; her long sweaters and kohl rimmed eyes, Margot created a style for the new century.

Margot's apathy, her lack of a fashion sense while wearing the same outfit since adolescence, her personal preppy uniform created a style of its own, obvious enough to be recognizable years later.

© 2014 Dolores Monet

Comments

Dolores Monet (author) from East Coast, United States on October 14, 2016:

teaches12345 - I agree. I feel that, in many ways, Rear Window is the perfect movie. Every moment leads the viewer deeper into the story. I love how the story seems familiar and reminds us of how we have watched local goings-on and wondered...I love how it goes from that familiar silliness into real suspense. Hitchcock was the master of suspense.

Dianna Mendez on May 04, 2014:

The film most striking to me is The Rear Window. It is such a classic and I enjoy watching it on occasion. The talented cast makes the movie so interesting along with the suspenseful content.

Dolores's interest in fashion history dates from her teenage years when vintage apparel was widely available in thrift stores.

A Short History of the Garment Industry

For most of human history, clothing has been handmade. Even today, while textile production is fully automated, garments are sewn and pieced together by human hands on sewing machines.

The production of textiles was a complicated and time consuming affair before Industrial Revolution. Raw materials such as wool, flax, and cotton needed to be spun by hand into yarn or thread. Weavers created fabrics at home or in small workshops on looms.

Before the proliferation of ready-to-wear clothing, each garment was made individually. Even after the Industrial Revolution, up into the early part of the 20th century a dress, for example, was made for the person who would wear it. People in the lower classes, servants and the like often wore hand-me-downs or purchased used clothing.

Though ready-to-wear apparel has been available for a long time, the ability to walk into a store, pluck a garment off a rack, or order it online is a relatively new concept.

In the not too distant past, a garment would last for a very long time. Today, we purchase an item of clothing, wear it a few times, and toss it. The creation, production, and distribution of clothing is the largest manufacturing business in the world.

Ready to Wear in the Old Days

Archeological records show that merchants in Ancient Babylonia shipped and distributed some ready-to-wear garments as early as 1400 BCE (BC). In Ancient Rome, garments were produced in workshops of up to 100 workers to outfit the military.

Before 1300 CE (AD) people did not wear fitted garments. Middle Eastern people wore loose, flowing robes. Medieval Europeans wore linen under-tunics and wool top tunics made of such durable fabric that a garment lasted a lifetime. Women spun wool into thread and weavers, generally men, wove fabric in home workshops.

After 1350, clothing became more form fitting. A small ready-to-wear industry soon began to produce shirt accessories such as detachable sleeves and collars, as well as gloves, and hats. By the second half of the 16th century, gloves, stockings, collars, and hats were imported and exported in bulk quantities.

Before the Industrial Revolution, most textile and garment production existed on a small scale in home home workshops called cottage industries. Merchants dropped off raw materials to the workers' homes where production relied on self-pacing and included low and highly skilled work.

The Industrial Revolution

In 1738 Lewis Paul and John Wyatt of England invented the Roller Spinning machine which spun cotton into thread. By 1764 a multi-spool spinning wheel was able to spin thread more quickly than ever before. The Water Frame was invented by Richard Arkwright in 1770 produced stronger threads and was powered by water. It was the Water Frame that made it possible to move textile production from the cottage to a factory like setting.

The Power Loom, patented in 1784 by Edmund Cartwright wove threads into cloth on a machine. As later improvements increased speed and efficiency, women began to replace the men who were formerly weavers. By 1880 there were 250,000 cotton power looms in Britain.

The first merchant ship to fly the fledgling United States flag exported ginseng and imported hats, men's breeches, and gloves. By the late 1700s Bristol England was home to over 200 businesses that exported hates, gloves, drawers, pants, stockings, shirts, jackets, and footwear.

Early in the 19th century some large scale apparel production still relied on hand sewing for piece work. In 1835, a New York company advertised for 800 tailors, and 1200 plain sewers.

The invention of steam powered machines for producing textiles and clothing drew the ire of frightened craftspeople. In England and France angry tailors and weavers who saw the machinery as a threat to their livelihood stormed factories and wrecked the machinery. Textile and garment work became fast paced and dependent on the large amounts of capital that it took to purchase machinery and physical plants. Workers lost their individuality, independence, and society's reliance on their skills.They were no longer crafts people but employees, just cogs in the wheel.

Victorian Garment Industry

By the 1880s large mills and factories produced fabric and garments including over coats, petticoats, shirts, trousers, gloves, hats, and footwear. The mills and factories of the Victorian era offered grueling work at poverty wages. The air filled with floating fibers that caused respiratory problems for the workers. Dim lighting ruined eyesight, and toxic dyes poisoned workers.

Women and children worked 12 hour days. During busy seasons, work hours could extend to 20 hours a day. Children who fell asleep at their work were beaten or fined. Low wages kept workers poorly nourished living on tea, bread, butter, and cheese with only occasional scraps of meat.

In England, lawmakers enacted early labor standards in 1833. The new child labor laws mandated an 8 hour work day for 9 year olds. Younger children were no longer allowed to work in mills or factories.

The invention of the sewing machine by Elias Howe in 1846 allowed workers to piece garments together quickly. Though many attempts were made and many types of sewing machines were produced, Elias Howe was credited for basic design. Along with marketing by business savvy Isaac Singer, Howe's invention changed the garment trade forever. (Later, Singer was to introduce the home sewing machine, advertised to help women save money on domestic help).

Despite the proliferation of ready-to-wear garment factories, may items of clothing were still handmade, tailored for the wearer. Wealthy and upper middle class women took samples of fashion illustrations to a seamstress. After the selection of the fabric, the seamstress would adopt the garment design to the customer's measurements.

High end fashions were often copied by the middle class. My own great aunt would visit a couture clothing shop to try on garments. If she liked a dress, she turned it inside out, carefully studied the pattern then copied it at home.

In the late 19th century, the department store introduced the idea of consolidating large amounts of mass produced goods for public consumption. Huge, beautifully constructed buildings offered restaurants and tea rooms as well as consumer goods.

By the early 20th century department stores began to feature knock-offs. In 1902 Marshall Fields' offered copied couture dresses for $25.00 ($621.00 at today's prices) compared to $75.00 ($1864.00 at today's prices) for the upscale version.

Garment Industry in the US Early 20th Century

In the United States at the turn of the 20th century mills and factory conditions earned the attention of progressives. Attempts to unionize erupted in violence and workers' strikes were seen as being influenced by socialists.

Much of the work done in factories and mills as well as the piecework performed in apartments was done by immigrant women and children.

Dangerous work shops and low pay were brought to the forefront when the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire erupted on March 25, 1911. Young workers had been locked in and were unable to escape the inferno. As the fire spread, 62 girls jumped to their deaths, some holding hands, driven mad by the heat. 146 workers were killed that day, the youngest two were only 14. Fire hoses and ladders were not tall enough to reach the blaze. The fire nets were not strong enough to contain the falling bodies. The tragedy drew the attention of the public. 400,000 people lined the streets to pay respects to the lost young workers. The Triangle Shirtwaist Fire drove a new public awareness and led to workplace safety and labor regulations.

Garment Industry in the US Mid 20th Century

In the 1930s, women's fashion magazines often presented illustrations for clothing patterns. Many women still made their own clothes at home.

Near the end of the Great Depression the Roosevelt Administration created a project to standardize women's measurements. From July 1939 - June 1940 American women were measured in order to formulate average sizing. This would save on alterations and cut down on store returns increasing the sales of ready-to-wear apparel.

As mass production increased, the style of clothing became more simplified. In order to offer more affordable apparel, the amount of fabric and embellishments used in clothing construction decreased. Still, garments were generally well made and could last for years. Wide seam allowances made it possible to alter or repair a garment at home.

The mid 20th century brought an overall rise in US wages and a growth of the middle class. As purchasing power increased people began to buy more articles of clothing. The US, particularly New York City, was a hub of garment manufacturing and distribution. In 1965, 95% of American's clothing was made in the the US.

Apparel was produced by small, independent firms. As late as 1990 the United States was home to over 12,000 independent clothing manufacturers. In 1996, the US textile industry employed 624,000 people. (Today it is only 120,000)

Large corporations increased advertizing budgets to induce shoppers to spend. Large retailers sought customers by introducing new lines more frequently. The new simpler clothing designs and new miracle fabrics made apparel easier and cheaper to produce.

Ready-to-Wear in the 21st Century

Today, 40% of all fabric fiber produced is polyester which is basically plastic. Fabrics have become thinner and less durable than in the past. Even brand names have reduced quality to compete with large retail chains.

While retail stores once introduced new lines four times a year (for each season) many chains now bring in new designs every two weeks. H & M and Forever 21 see incoming shipments of new styles nearly every day. Forever 21 can create a style from design concept to the rack in 6 weeks; H & M in 8 weeks.

Over consumption is today's hottest fashion trend. Where once a garment lasted for years, women think nothing of wearing a piece of clothing 2 or 3 times. Our closets have grown to hold vast clothing collections. While mid 20th century homes offered small closets, today's new homes feature walk-in closets the size of a small room.

The World Bank estimates that the processing and production of textiles accounts for 20% of global water pollution as well as 10% of global carbon emissions.

US Garment Business Moves Overseas

In the not so distant past trade barriers regulated garment imports and bolstered the US apparel business. In the 1990s deregulation made the import of cheap apparel from developing countries more advantageous for the garment industry. Thousands of US garment and textile workers lost their jobs when NAFTA encouraged the industry to move operations from Los Angeles to Mexico. US wages were pushed down to compete.

Garment and textile factories popped up in China and Bangladesh where labor was cheap. Unregulated producers were free to pollute the air and discharge chemicals into the waterways. Workers had little protection, enduring long hours, low pay, and abuse.

In 2009 a Federal judge ruled that Walmart was not responsible for the terrible conditions that overseas factory workers endured, declaring that the foreign workers were not actually Walmart employees.

Dismal conditions in foreign countries began to mimic the deplorable conditions of Victorian England. The plight of these workers was brought to a head in April 2013 when a factory in Dhaka Bangladesh collapsed and killed 1129 workers.

Sources

Overdressed - The Shockingly High Cost of Cheap Fashion, by Elizabeth L. Cline; Penguin; New York; 2012

Ready-to-Wear; Encyclopedia of Clothing and Fashion; Edited by Valerie Steele; Charles Scribner's Sons; 2005

Victorian Women: A Documentary Account of Women's Lives in 19th Century England, France, and the United States; Edited by Hillerstew, Hume, and Offen; Standford University Press; CA; 1981

Women's Measurements for Garment and Pattern Construction; US Dept. of Agriculture Publication #454; Bureau of Home Economics

World Textiles : A Concise History by Mary Schoeser; Thames Hudson 2003

Triangle: The Fire That Changed America by David Von Drehle;Atlantic Monthly Press; New York; 2003

How Much Do Our Wardrobes Cost to the Environment; World Bank Sept. 23, 2019

Questions & Answers

Question: Do you have any information about male sizing systems of the early ready-to-wear-industry in the 19th century?

Answer: Ready to wear garments were introduced for the military. During the American Civil War measurements were taken of men in order to gauge averages to create ready to wear garments.The development of the sewing machine made mass production common. By the 1870s commercially produced paper garment pattern became common. Off the rack clothing is cheaper to produce than custom so the new method became a popular way for men without great means to dress. For in depth information on this topic, read "Sizing in Clothing Developing effective Sizing Systems for Read to Wear Clothing," edited by S.P. Ashdown from Woodhead Publishing. Chapters are written by a number of authors.

© 2014 Dolores Monet

Comments

Dolores Monet (author) from East Coast, United States on October 07, 2019:

Hi Marlene - learning the old fashioned way, one book at a time is best. An article is a fine introduction to a topic but for deeper information there is nothing like taking to the books, and lots of them. Thank you for the comment.

Marlene Franklin on October 06, 2019:

As a Fashion Design student who attended the Illinois Institute of Art, Chicago (Merchandise Mart), I wish I had the information presented here for my homework. I learned the old fashioned way, one book at a time. Good job and priceless information. Thanks.

Dolores Monet (author) from East Coast, United States on June 02, 2019:

Hi Deborah - I knew some women who could beautifully sew fitted, tailored garments. In the late 1960s and into the 70's, there were fabric discount shops where you could get great bargains on fabric. I used to make robes and peasant style blouses as well as a dress or two. Today, it's cheaper to buy at thrift stores. But when you love to sew, there is always quilting! I make pillow covers and cushion covers - they are simple. Thanks!

Deborah Guedri on June 01, 2019:

My wonderful mother taught me to sew when I was eight. I loved it immediately. Eventually I learned to make all my clothes, even using the designer patterns. Later I got a little chubby and the patterns didn't fit me anymore. It seemed that clothes were cheaper to buy than to make. (So, I started quilting.) This is a great article and I especially enjoyed the union commercial. Thanks so much!

Dolores Monet (author) from East Coast, United States on July 21, 2014:

suzettenaples - thank you for sharing your story and comments! Though I do sew occasionally, I am not up to make any kind of complicated garment and pretty much stick to simple things like curtains and bags.

Suzette Walker from Taos, NM on July 15, 2014:

What an interesting article! I enjoyed reading this. I love clothing but have cut way back on what I buy today. You are correct in saying we wear something two or three times and then throw it away. I have stopped doing that. I worked at Chico's in Naples, FL and what a hoot that was. New clothes came in daily and they were constantly chucking the 'old clothes' after about two weeks. Incredible!

I really identified with this article. My grandmother worked at McGregor's shirt factory during the 30's 40's 50's and 60's. She sewed the sleeves into the shoulder of the shirt. I was able to watch her at work one day and I couldn't believe the speed at which she did this. Needless to say, I learned how to sew growing up. My mom sewed too and showed my sister and I how to sew. But, she made it so darn unpleasant that to this day I hate to sew anything. I had to sew perfectly straight seams or I had to rip them out. Sew and rip was not my idea of fun or of creating an outfit. But, at least I can sew a button on a shirt. LOL! I remember in NYC in the 60;s seeing the garment district and the guys running the rack of clothes along the sidewalk. The designers clothing would whoosh by the cars on the street. I couldn't imagine how they stayed clean.

I finally learned how to spin sheep's wool into yarn a few years ago. Actually, that is a soothing and fun thing to do and I learned how to weave rugs on a loom. I can't imagine doing that all the time to create cotton or linen to make clothing out of. But, again, at least I know how to do it. But, this is why I have such an interest in clothing and fashion. I really do know how to do it from the sheep's wool to the clothing rack in the store. It is one of the few talents I have literally from the bottom to the top of then selling the product. But, it makes me appreciate clothing and how it is made (and sometimes not made so well). Thanks for such an interesting article! Voted up and shared.

Hendrika from Pretoria, South Africa on February 28, 2014:

Dolores - I agree with you, to the States standards we were definitely not cool. To tell you the truth we did not even know about "cool" You must remember I grew up in the Apartheid era and the government decided for us what we must see, what we must listen, what we may read etc.

I can promise you today's standards in South Africa I would have been "cool" wearing all the "cool" labels, that is the point, even though we did not know the word "cool" it was cool to make your own clothes. I was very popular with the 'in" crowd and I had the boys standing in a long row for me!

We might as well have lived on another planet. We were kept in the dark as much as possible and it was only the "undesirables" that new a little more

Dolores Monet (author) from East Coast, United States on February 27, 2014:

Hendrika - I encountered brand awareness for the first time in the 9th grade. You just had to have a certain brand of dress, I can't even recall the brand. If you did not, you were just not cool. When I was a little girl in the 60's, my Barbies had handmade dresses. This woman made them and sold them and they were awesome. Even then I recognized that the styles were hot, the fabrics natural. Our Barbies had originals!

Hendrika from Pretoria, South Africa on February 25, 2014:

It is interesting to see how things moved. In my youth, during the 50's and 60's making our own clothes was very fashionable in South Africa. You were actually ashamed to buy anything you could make yourself. This was long before brand awareness in South Africa and it was the biggest disaster EVER to see someone with the same dress than yours.

Shops also did not have row upon row of the same garment. A shop would only have one of a kind and it was really very rare to meet someone with the same dress. Even so, making your own was seen as a very good way of avoiding such an embarrassment.

My heritage is mostly Irish. Researching traditional Irish clothing is a way for me to explore my family's history.

Irish Clothing History Misconceptions and Mysteries

Surprisingly, traditional Irish clothing is a bit of a mystery. Few historical accounts of clothing styles survive and the garments themselves were not typically preserved for study. All we can say for certain is that garments were primarily made of wool and linen (and leather, less frequently) and that historians and archaeologists believe that most Irish people wore simple, tunic-style garments, heavy wool mantles, and linen shirts.¹

However, contrary to popular belief, it is fairly certain that the Irish did not wear kilts like the Scottish. In fact, most historians and scholars agree that neither the kilt nor the tartan pattern originated in Ireland, and that the kilt was never a part of the Irish wardrobe at any point in history.² That's right, ladies and gentleman. There is no such thing as an Irish kilt.

Sources of Information on Irish Clothing

As I mentioned, Irish traditional clothing remains a bit of a mystery. However, there are several sources that can help us piece together information and discover a general idea of what the Irish probably wore throughout history.

The Moy Bog Gown

One of the ways in which we can piece together information about Irish garments is through the archaeological record. The Moy Bog Gown, for example, is an archaeological discovery that proved to be a valuable source of information on historical Irish dress.

The Moy Bog Garment is a fragment of a dress found on a decomposed body in the Moy Bog of County Clare, Ireland. The body was found by a local farmer in 1931, and the remains of the garment were sent to the National Museum of Ireland. A later analysis of the fabric indicated that it was a rough wool twill that may originally have been brown in color. It is believed to date from the early 1300s, making it about 700 years old.³

Though only fragments of the gown remain, a few details can still be seen clearly: it consists of a front-buttoning bodice, a skirt that may have been ankle or calf-length, a rounded neckline, and fitted sleeves that were probably long.

• Reconstruction of the Moy Gown
  To learn more about the Moy Gown, check out Kass McGann's page. She was in close contact with the National Museum of Ireland regarding the garment and created a reconstruction using her own photos and measurements of the original.

Moy Gown Sewing Pattern - Create Your Own Reproduction

What About Traditional Medieval Irish Shoes?

Typical Irish shoes from the Early Medieval Period onward looked like a simplified version of the Irish dance shoes pictured on the right. They were made of leather with an adjustable leather lace (which had to be replaced often) holding them closed.

How do we know what the shoes looked like? Much like the Moy Gown, surviving examples have been found in Irish bogs, like the discovery of the Coolatoor Bog Shoe linked below.

The Coolatoor Bog Shoe

• An Early Medieval Shoe from Co. Westmeath
  Early Medieval shoe discovered in the 1950s by turf-cutters working at Coolatoor Bog in County Westmeath.

The Image of Irelande

We can also gain information on Irish-style clothing from paintings and other forms of artwork. The Image of Irelande, with a Discoverie of Woodkarne is an excellent example.

The book itself was concerned with defending the English right to conquer and rule Ireland, but the woodcut illustrations and text descriptions provide historically useful information on Irish culture (including apparel) despite the anti-Irish political message and negative commentary on Irish customs.

The Image of Irelande was printed in 1581 by John Derricke, an employee of Queen Elizabeth I's Lord Deputy of Ireland, Sir Henry Sidney. The Lord Deputy of Ireland was the English Queen's representative who acted as head of the Irish state after the Tudor conquest, which accounts for the pro-imperialist anti-Irish sentiments expressed in the book.

The Image of Irelande is a useful historical reference because John Derricke lived in Ireland while he completed the book, making him an eyewitness of the customs and events he describes. His work contains a description of the history of the relationship between Ireland and the English crown and also includes details on Irish customs, religion, and clothing, however negatively portrayed.

From the book's woodcut illustrations, we can see depictions of some Irish people in their traditional clothing of the late 16th century. Since Derricke oversaw the creation of the images, the garments may be fairly accurate portrayals of styles he witnessed himself during his time in Ireland.

Lucas de Heere's Paintings of Irish Men and Women

Another great source of information on Irish traditional clothing is artwork. The painting of Irish men and women by Lucas de Heere (right) is a great example.

The 1575 watercolor painting by Dutch artist Lucas de Heere depicts a group of wealthy elite Irish men and women. The two women are wearing English-style clothing and the Irish Kern (soldier) is in a traditional dress uniform.⁴ By the late 16th century, many of the wealthier Irish people were adopting English fashions and clothing styles.

A (Very) General Summary of Irish Apparel

From these sources we can see that tunics and mantles do indeed appear to be the primary mode of traditional Irish dress. Garment fragments like the Moy Gown let us know that buttons were in use and that wool was common. Paintings and woodcuts like those of Derricke and de Heere indicate that military and courtly dress consisted of loose tunics with varying levels of decoration.

From what we know of traditional Irish clothing, it seems fairly austere and simple, but warm, practical, and durable. If paintings like de Heere's are to be believed, yellow and tan were fairly common garment colors, and we know from the Moy Gown that brown was used as well.

References

1. Foster, Robert Fitzroy. The Oxford History of Ireland. Oxford University Press: 1989.
2. Newsome, Matthew and Todd Wilkinson. "Hibernian Dress, Caledonian Custom: A Brief history of Irish Kilts & Tartans."
3. McGann, Kass. "The Moy Gown — An Irish Medieval Gown."
4. Lennon, Colm. Luxury and Austerity. University College Dublin Press: 1999.

About Me

Most of my heritage is Irish (with a quarter of German ancestry thrown in the mix) but as a 5th generation American, I don't really know that much about my Irish roots. So, researching traditional Irish clothing was a fun way to explore my history and hopefully provide some useful information for others wanting to do the same.

Comments

Remingtons on March 05, 2019:

We want to thank you so much for your wonderful post! We learned so much. My daughter had a school assignment and we learned a lot from your amazing article. We had so much fun reading!

Tei Rooney on December 08, 2018:

Thank you VERY much for your article!

My daughter was given an assignment in school, to do a doll dressed in a "traditional heritage costume" of each one's own heritage. If multiple, they could choose from their multiple. We have Irish, German mostly, so Irish was the chosen. LOL We would have thought with as common as Irish ancestry is in the US alone, that it would have been easy to find an incredible amount of images and info about the clothing alone. Wow was I wrong!! This was a wealth of info, and help!

Alastar Packer from North Carolina on January 29, 2014:

An interest here in peat/bog bodies, clothing from those times, well, everything connected to the bodies and their artifacts made this an enjoyable and instructive read. Thanks, Christy!

Philip Wall from Dublin, Ireland on April 07, 2013:

An interesting article. I didn't know Irish men only adopted the tradition of kilts as a sense of Nationalism recently. This article explains more about it. http://wiki.answers.com/Q/Why_did_Irish_men_start_...

Steve Anselmo from Thunder Bay on April 04, 2013:

Great article Christy! My fiancée is also Irish and I'm going to refer her to this article as I'm sure she would be very interested in her roots as well.

mr-veg from Colorado United States on March 25, 2013:

Great article, delight to read !! Good one christy ..

Suzanne Ridgeway from Dublin, Ireland on March 25, 2013:

Hi Christy,

What an interesting read on Irish garments. As an Irish woman the history made fascinating reading I really enjoyed! Well done on the research.

Kitty went to school for fashion design and merchandising. She loves to design, sew, and create fashion inspired by the past.

Timeless Fashion of Days Gone By

My grandmother used to tell me, "You were born in the wrong century, dear." That's because I always had a longing to live in the Victorian era. The romance, the fashion, the femininity of days gone by. How can we replicate that now, in a world where everything is about technology and just keeps moving faster and faster? One way to bring back the Romantic era is to bring it back as a part of our fashion.

This article is all about how to incorporate Romantic era fashion into your wardrobe without looking like a total blast from the past. Let's bring back some of the femininity and poise that our Victorian ancestors had.

Incorporating Romantic Era Fashion Into a Modern Wardrobe: The Staples

Lace

The very first piece of the Romantic era fashion to bring back is the loads of lace! Lace can be found as a part of almost every clothing article there is: dresses, stockings, purses, hats, sweaters, pants, even jewelry. Every high class Victorian woman in the Romantic era had e-gads worth of lace in her closet...so why don't you? Wear an entire dress made of lace, lace stockings, lace gloves, and lace accessories to go full-on Romantic era fashion-ista.

But, if you're not into the elaborate Victorian style, remember that you don't have to wear a high-collared, maxi dress made of lace in order to look romantic or Victorian. In fact, you can wear a simple, white lacy sundress in the summer and bring a sense of romanticism to your look. If lace is too uncomfortable or too much for your taste, add only a lace cardigan to your ensemble.

Florals

Another indisputable staple in a Victorian woman's wardrobe is clothing with floral patterns. Roses were considered the most romantic flower, and so they were used as patterns on dresses, coats, and purses in the Romantic era. Today, roses on clothing can still be found in many of our department and boutique stores. In fact, rose patterns are quite the trend at the moment, so you can even find jeans with floral patterns for a decent price. Check Forever21, Macy's, and even JCPenney's for floral shorts, skirts, jackets, cardigans, and blouses. Mix and match your rose and floral patterns to make for a very romantic and girly Spring Day ensemble.

Or wear a simple floral dress to dinner with your hot date. Tapestry bags with rose floral patterns scream Romantic era fashion, and can be found online in vintage stores and in consignment shops...if you look for them hard enough. If all else fails, roses can be worn in your hair and as jewelry to pull off that timeless romantic floral look.

Must-Have Victorian Boots and Stockings

Many of us Romantic girls are shoe fanatics, and so you can bet the first pair of boots we owned was a pair of Victorian-style lace-up boots. If you don't have a pair of Victorian boots, you need to get a pair. Victorian Lace-up boots can come in various sizes, colors, and lengths. You can find Victorian boots that are ankle-high and knee-high. They come in colors such as black, ivory, white, pink, brown, and dark blue. You can find them on Amazon, in boutique shoe stores, on Etsy.com, and many other places if you keep your eyes peeled. I've listed some below for your convenience.

What completes Victorian Romantic era fashion along with the Victorian boots we've talked about? The perfect pair of stockings, of course. You can find knee-high, thigh-high, or full stockings in many colors, patterns, and sizes too. My favorite Romantic stockings are usually lace or spider-web.

Jewelry and Accessories

The Romantic era was all about looking pretty, feminine, and elegant. Jewelry and accessories are something that you must over-do and do a LOT. Pearls, cameos, and art-deco jewelry should be littering your jewelry box.

Scour thrift shops, garage sales, and estate sales to find the best and most authentic vintage jewelry to add to your Romantic era wardrobe. Ask your mother and grandmother if they have any vintage or antique jewelry that they wouldn't mind giving to you. Claire's store in the mall also carry accessories and jewelry that look similar to vintage jewelry that you can purchase for a fairly cheap amount.

Don't forget to look on Etsy.com for vintage and vintage-repro jewelry. And if all else fails, why not make your own if you feel so inclined? Stick to gold and copper for the metals, and then add pearls, pink and purple stones, and white flowers to top off the look.

© 2013 Kitty Fields

Comments

Kitty Fields (author) from Summerland on April 03, 2013:

Faith - So glad you liked it. Blessings!!

Faith A Mullen on April 03, 2013:

LOVE the romantic modern look. I need to introduce some more lace and florals to my wardrobe. Thanks for sharing! Voted up :)

Dora Weithers from The Caribbean on February 24, 2013:

Great hub! Fashions of the Victorian Era are really timeless. Laces and frills will last as long as femininity. Thanks for sharing these wonderful suggestions.

Kitty Fields (author) from Summerland on February 24, 2013:

Angela - Thanks so much for reading. That must have been so much fun to work for something like that...but I probably would've gone broke! LOL

Ericdierker - Agreed!

dilipchandra12 - Thank you, very much.

torrilynn - Thanks for reading and voting. :)

torrilynn on February 23, 2013:

kittythedreamer, really nice hub that you havewritten here. i think that that included fashion from a different era into what we wear now is magnificent. thanks for the tips and techniques.voted up.

Dilip Chandra from India on February 23, 2013:

Well written and it was organized quite good.

Eric Dierker from Spring Valley, CA. U.S.A. on February 23, 2013:

When a woman is adorned as she feels fit, she is the prettiest woman that ever held my arm.

Angela Blair from Central Texas on February 23, 2013:

What a delightful read and excellent suggestions. I worked for some years for a wholesale house that specialized in Victorian accessories for women and also Victorian décor -- and I bought a great deal of the products the company sold back then. I'm so glad I did as there's nothing more feminine, on women of any age, than a few accessories reminiscent of days gone by. Best/Sis

Dolores's interest in fashion history dates from her teenage years when vintage apparel was widely available in thrift stores.

A Brief History of Pants

• Pants were worn by ancient people and were mentioned in the Bible as well as in Ancient Greek mythology.
• The King James version of the Bible mentions pants in Exodus 28:42: "and you shall make them linen trousers to cover their nakedness from the loins even to the thighs" and in the Book of Daniel, 3:21: "Then these men were bound in their coats, their trousers, and their turbans...".
• The earliest pants in the Western world were worn by equestrians of Asia minor and eastern Europe.
• Pants were worn in western Europe in 3rd century BCE.
• The zipper was invented in 1890.
• Jeans were first introduced in late 19th century.
• Pants became acceptable work attire for women in the 1970s.

Pants: A Definition

What do you call pants?

While the words pants and trousers are often used interchangeably, trousers generally refer to tailored garments with a fitted waistline, pockets, and a zipper. The word pants was often used to refer to undergarments, but is also broader term and can refer to trousers, bloomers, knickerbockers, breeches, slacks, jeans, shorts, and capris. Leggings are often referred to as pants but are more akin to hose.

Who "wears the pants"?

The expression "the one who wears the pants in the family" is meant to describe the "head" of that family and equates the wearing of pants with power and masculinity.

When did women start wearing pants?

Until the 20th century, Western culture restricted the wearing of pants to men. Before then, women wore loose pantalettes or drawers under dresses for modesty and warmth. Though actual pants were sometimes seen on women in the late 1800s and in the early part of the 20th century, it was not until the 1970s that the wearing of trousers by women was accepted for business or dress occasions.

Ancient Pants

• The wearing of pants in Western culture probably arose with the equestrian warrior cultures of Asia minor. The Scythians of the area encompassed by today's Ukraine, Bulgaria, and Romania wore loose pants tucked into boots. A portrait of a warrior wearing pants appears on a cup found in a burial site from 770 BC.
• The Greek historian Herodotus mentions the Scythians wearing pants. Herodotus also mentions Amazons (female warriors of Greek mythology) clad in trousers. An Amazon depicted on a vessel in 470 BC is obviously wearing pants.
• Pants were adapted from the Scythians by the Persians (of modern Iran) by the 5th century BC.
• The Celts, a nomadic people of Central Europe, wore pants, though documentation is sketchy at best. The style, copied from Scythians and Persians, spread through Central Europe around the third century BC.
• Ancient Greeks and Romans equated the wearing of trousers with savagery and referred to those early trouser-clad people as barbarians. When the Romans conquered Celtic Briton in the first century AD, they called the Irish "wild people." But as cultures mixed, Roman soldiers took to wearing a form of pants (called braccae) that resembled a pair of tight capris and were much more appropriate for cold weather climates than togas.
• Braccae is the Latin root of the word breeches, a type of knee-length trouser. Braccae, however, had adjustable hems and could be worn knee-length or ankle-length.
• The Thorsberg Trousers pictured below are a relic from the 4th century AC and were found in Denmark.
• Damendorf Man, a bog body found in 1900, perished between 140–380 AD. A pair of neatly folded pants were found near the corpse.

The Evolution of Pants in Europe

• Men of medieval Europe wore snug-fitting pants or leggings with a short tunic. Women wore a kind of legging or loose britches under dresses in colder weather for warmth.
• These snug pants evolved into a tighter form of leg covering and began to appear more like hose with attached foot coverings.
• By 1500, men wore voluminous knee breeches with attached hose. Fashionable men wore them in bold colors. The breeches were lined and slashed to reveal a brightly colored lining. By 1550, the breeches became a greatly exaggerated fashion, stuffed to balloon around the upper leg.
• The 1600s saw these pantaloons embellished with buttons and ribbons, while working men of the lower classes wore ankle-length pants.
• Large pantaloon styles gradually slimmed into simple breeches that were fastened below the knee. During the French Revolution, breeches came to be seen as an aristocratic conceit, and men adapted the longer, ankle-length styles of the working class. At the time, women's pants were called pantalettes, an undergarment worn beneath the skirt. They were formed of two separate linen tubes attached to a drawstring at the waist.

Victorian Pants and Trousers

• In the early part of the 19th century, men's pants were tight and occasionally fitted with stirrup straps that fit under the soles of the feet to create a smooth line, a style that would reappear for women in the late 20th century.
• Mid-1800s saw a looser-fit trouser with a button-fly front instead of the earlier "falls," a front panel that buttoned around the sides. Men's pants began to appear in the dark or neutral colors that would rule menswear until the present day.
• Victorian society strictly regulated propriety in attire. Unlike Sumptuary Laws of earlier periods when the Church and government dictated the types of garments people wore, Victorians were ruled by societal expectations. The concept of women in pants was considered inappropriate, though a few appearances of trouser-clad women shocked or amused society.
• In Victorian England, young female mineworkers wore pants under tucked-up skirts. Although convenient, a famous photograph depicting a Wigan pit girl dressed thus was considered risqué and was deemed inappropriate.
• In the middle of the 1800s, women began to clamor for freedom of movement. The Dress Reform Movement, pioneered by feminists, sought a new style of dress for women at work and for athletic activities.
• Elizabeth Smith Miller invented a type of long, puffy pants that were gathered at the ankles. Worn with a short (knee or calf length) dress and made famous by Amelia Bloomer, these "bloomers" caught the attention of the media, who ridiculed the style.
• Pictured below is Lucy Stone who met Amelia Bloomer in 1852. Stone, an American abolitionist and suffragist, appears in an 1853 photograph wearing trousers under her dress.
• But by the end of the 19th century, women began to appear in public wearing toned-down bloomers or knickers for bike riding and other sports.
• Jeans (or dungarees) were introduced in the late 19th century, created and marketed for California gold miners. Double stitching added to the durability of these pants that have changed little since the turn of the last century. Embraced by farmers and laborers, jeans ultimately became the iconic garment of the late 20th century and are, today, a staple of almost every wardrobe.

The Prince of Wales Set the Tone for Men's Pants in the 20th Century

Queen Victoria's eldest son Edward, Prince of Wales, who would become Edward VII, gave his name to the Edwardian fashion period and is credited for setting the tone for men's trousers in the modern era. Edward introduced trouser cuffs to lift the trouser hem above the dirt and popularized trouser creases.

While cuffs add weight to the pant leg for a smoother line, cuffs can visually shorten the leg, so some believe pants should only be cuffed on taller men.

Edward was also known to wear a type of shorts while on safari. The shorts had an adjustable hem.

20th Century Pants

• Paul Poiret, the famous early-20th-century fashion designer, introduced a line based on the Ballet Russes' Sheherazade which featured a long tunic worn over harem pants. This loose style of pants eventually found its way into women's wardrobes as hostess or palazzo pants, sometimes worn at the beach. They became quite popular in the 1930s and were seen on fashion icons like Coco Chanel and Katharine Hepburn.
• During World War I when British women took over factory and farm work, replacing men gone into the military, pants took on a new role for women as a practical garment.
• World War II put women back into the workforce and back into pants. Famous posters of female workers encouraged women to wear practical bib overalls and dungarees, or what we now call jeans.
• The later 20th century saw an explosion of trouser styles for men and women. Though men's dress pants have changed little since the 1930s, today it is not unusual to see men wearing shorts, a type of pants once worn only by children. Jeans have evolved from practical work garments to the symbol of outsider fashion to the classic garment no one can do without.
• Various styles of trousers have come and gone in the past 112 years, with certain styles disappearing for decades then coming back full force. The stirrup stretch pants of the early 1960s returned in the 1980s. Capris have disappeared and made a come-back.
• Trousers became acceptable formal and business wear for women by the late 1970s, with pantsuits worn by women in high positions.

Zippers

• The zipper closure was invented by Whitcomb Judson, an American traveling salesman. First used as shoe fasteners, zippers did not become a garment closure until the 20th century.
• Elsa Shiaparelli introduced a zip garment closure and decoration in 1935.
• By the end of the Great Depression, exclusive men's tailors incorporated zippers into fly closures. By the 1950s, zippers had become the main closure for trousers.
• In the mid 20th century, women's pants generally featured a side zipper. Social norms of the 1940s and 1950s dictated a feminine modesty that seemed threatened by the easy removal enabled by front-zip slacks. Side zippers also created a smoother line in the form-fitting slacks of the day. Front-zippered jeans can appear and feel bulky.

Types of Pants

Capri Pants were introduced by Sonja de Lennart in 1948. Named after her favorite vacation spot, the fitted mid-calf-length pants became an instant classic worn by Audrey Hepburn and Grace Kelly. Laura Petrie, the female lead on the Dick Van Dyke Show played by Mary Tyler Moore, often wore capri pants in her role as an early 1960s housewife. TV wives had, until that time, usually worn skirts or dresses.

Gauchos are loose, skirt-like pants with just-below-the-knee hems that look well paired with boots.

Shorts, first worn only by children and boys under 8 years of age, gained popularity as the 20th century advanced. Bermuda shorts feature hems just above the knee and were popularized by the British in warmer climates. Bermuda shorts were paired with high socks, dress shirts, ties, and jackets. In the United Kingdom, children still wear shorts as part of their school uniform paired with a school blazer and high socks.

Daisy Dukes are very short shorts.

Cut-Offs are jeans that have been cut into shorts, usually without a finished hem.

Pedal Pushers appeared on the August 28, 1944 cover of Life Magazine. Shortened capris or lengthened shorts, pedal pushers (also called clam diggers) end just below the knee and are convenient for bike riding or clam digging. They are very similar to knickerbockers.

Knickerbockers are a form of bicycle pants or golf pants ending just below the knee with a fastener. They were usually worn by boys or men.

Bell Bottoms, popular in the 1960s counterculture movement, widen into a bell just below the knee and came in high or low waisted styles.

Overalls are loose fitting pants with a bib-like extension above the waist, fastened over the shoulder with straps.

Sources

What People Wore When: A Complete Illustrated History of Costumes From Ancient Times to the 19th Century; Edited by Melissa Leventon; St. Martin's Press; New York; 2008

Tim Gunn's Fashion Bible: The Fascinating History of Everything in Your Closet; Tim Gunn with Ada Calhoun; Gallery Books; New York; 2012

The Encyclopedia of Clothing and Fashion; Edited by Valerie Steele; Scribner Library of Daily Life; Charles Scribner's Sons'; New York; 2005

Questions & Answers

Question: When did front flys come into fashion for women?

Answer: Though zippers were introduced in the early 20th century, they did not catch on for women until later. By the 1930s, zippers were used more often sometimes for decoration, sometimes for function.

When women began to wear pants, side zippers provided a sleek look that was popular. Front zips were seen as too masculine.

It was when the ladies began to wear jeans that the front zip crept into women's wear. Mid-century teenaged girls would wear men's or boy's jeans with front closures. The trend became so popular that jeans for women started to feature front zippers. Though some brands had introduced front zips for women earlier, they did not catch on until the 1960s.

Question: When were pleated pants introduced?

Answer: Pleats are not to be confused with creased pants. Creased pants feature a crease that extends down the leg. Pleats are created when the fabric is folded over on itself and sewed in place.

Salwar pleaded pants have been worn in India for over 2,000 years. Another pleated style called Gurkha trousers were worn by the military in Nepal. Nineteenth century British military styles adapted the comfortable trousers. Gurkha pants are double pleated in front and feature a high waistband fastened with a buckle.

Pleated pants were popular in Western men's suits in the 1930s and became the go to style in the late 1940s and 1950s. After disappearing in the 1960s, they regained popularity in the 1990s.

Question: When were pockets on pants introduced?

Answer: Pockets were once simple bags that hung from a belt. Otzi the Iceman was a mummified man found in the Alps. Dating to 3,300 BCE, the man had a pocket made of leather. Pockets worn hung from belts persisted for thousands of years. In the 13th century, slits called fitchets were cut into garments to reach an inner pocket hung from a belt. Women also wore these pockets accessible through slits in the side seams of their garments. The hidden bags thwarted pickpockets and were used to store coins, combs, keys, and hankies.

Sewing patterns made in the 1840s feature pockets sewn into the side seams of men's trousers. Utilitarian garments produced during World War I featured pockets in women's clothing.

Question: When was elastic first used in trouser waistbands?

Answer: In 1820 Thomas Hancock introduced elastic fastenings for garments and footwear. Founder of the British rubber industry, Hancock invented the machine called a Masticator that shredded up scrap rubber leading to the conservation of rubber as well as elastic. By 1900 the use of elastic in clothing became more widespread.

Boxers and briefs with elastic waistbands were introduced in the 1930s. In 1934, Alexander Simpson of Great Britain sewed elastic tabs into trouser waistbands. Soon he threaded elastic within the waistband to help keep shirts tucked in.

During and after World War II synthetic materials were developed to replace rubber due to wartime shortages. In DuPont introduced spandex in 1959. In the 1970s, baseball uniforms used elastic waistbands.

Question: Where did crease on pant legs originate?

Answer: There are some who think that King Edward VIII wore creased trousers while he was still the Prince of Wales. By the end of the 1800s, creases were showing up in men's pants. Some gentlemen wore their creases on the side! Look at old photographs of men and search for evidence of creases. Front creases became popular by the early 1900s.

© 2012 Dolores Monet

Comments

Dolores Monet (author) from East Coast, United States on September 01, 2019:

Hi Barbara - the term fly was used in the past and still is today to refer to the folded cloth at the opening of a tent. It is used to describe closings on garments that feature a strip of folded cloth. Some say that it comes from an older English word. Others claim that the wind could cause the folded tent opening to fly open.

Barbara Sestili on August 25, 2019:

How did the term "fly" come about?

Dolores Monet (author) from East Coast, United States on April 16, 2019:

Hi Don - Dr. Mary Edwards Walker was a civilian contractor surgeon for the Union during the American Civil War. An advocate for women's rights, including the right to vote, she heroically crossed enemy lines to care for the wounded. During the war and later in private practice, she often wore pants with a skirt and often dressed in a suit with trousers for which she was once arrested in New Orleans. She felt that women should dress for health and comfort, that their clothing should allow ease of movement. She was a remarkable woman.

Don Knowlton on April 12, 2019:

Don't forget the contribution of Dr. Mary Edwards Walker, early advocate of trousers and Medal of Honor recipient.

Dolores Monet (author) from East Coast, United States on February 20, 2019:

Hi Dena -

Very tiny pants. Just joking. Moleskin pants are made of cotton and have been produced since the Middle Ages. The fabric is similar to suede or unlined corduroy. It's somewhat water repellent and protects the legs from being scratched in woodland settings, Though tough and durable, moleskin fabric is soft and comfortable.

Dena Moore on February 19, 2019:

Were trousers ever made from the skins of moles?

Dolores Monet (author) from East Coast, United States on January 11, 2013:

Hi dahoglund - Ever since I got started on the fashion hubs, I've watched movies and thought about the costuming. So often books set in one time are made into movies that feature costumes of a different period. When we look back, we must remember that clothing of the past had little to do with common sense but often with social norms. In the Middle Ages, the Church dictated what women had to wear. I used to wonder how, in Victorian times, the maids carried trays of food up the stairs from the basement kitchens, wearing those long skirts. Then I read how there was a way to sort of kick forward so the women would not trip.

Thanks for the comment!

Don A. Hoglund from Wisconsin Rapids on January 11, 2013:

This was a very informative history. I often wonder about the clothing portrayed in movies depicting the past. Women are shown wearing dresses and such while doing farm work. On the other hand they are often shown wearing clothing that had not been invented yet.

Dolores's interest in fashion history dates from her teenage years when vintage apparel was widely available in thrift stores.

Women's fashions of the 1950s reflected a complicated mix of conservatism and glamour—a girl-next-door freshness as well as alluring femininity. Women who had lived through the privations of the Great Depression and World War II were now able to afford new styles and embraced them all, from the elegance of grand, sweeping skirts to shorts and trousers.

An hourglass figure dominated the look of the 1950s. With cinched-in waistlines and accentuated hips and busts, the style was a decidedly mature one.

Despite the mature, conservative look of major designers, a new feeling for casual attire crept onto the scene, as women increasingly began to wear pants, shorts, sportswear, and shoulder-revealing sundresses.

Hallmarks of 1950s Fashion

• An hourglass figure predominated
• Skirts were big with crinolines or slim pencil skirts
• Women increasingly wore trousers
• Shirtwaist dresses were popular
• Hats and gloves always worn for dress or business

Historical Context for 1950s Fashion

In the 1950s, economic gains created a new consumer-driven society and enabled a family to live quite comfortably on one income. Women who had taken factory work during World War II quit or were fired. As people strove for a conservative simplicity, the housewife became the feminine ideal of the day. Though the suburban lifestyle may seem shallow to some, and restrictive for women, it must be remembered that for twenty years people had been living in fear of poverty, and they had just emerged from the staggering losses of World War II.

The underlying fear of the nuclear bomb, the changes wrought by the Civil Rights Movement, and the perhaps overblown threat of communism took a backseat to a yearning for the simple, idealized life depicted in mass media. Television transformed entertainment and the news, influencing trends and depicting fashionable homemakers.

The New Look

Christian Dior introduced the New Look in 1947. With its tight cinched waist, billowing skirt, and pronounced bust line, the New Look recalled historic styles of the mid-19th century and set the tone for the next decade.

Huge skirts needed the support of petticoats made of nylon mesh. Hoops, or crinoline cages, a relic of the 1850s, were brought back. Sometimes, petticoats showed below the skirt hem, trimmed in pretty colors.

Clothing styles during the war years had featured dull colors, squared shoulders, and a minimal use of fabric and embellishments due to wartime restrictions. The New Look offered a new opulence and a new look at femininity.

Pencil Skirts and Big Skirts

Tailored suits appeared very feminine, with tight waists and accentuated hips. Though Coco Chanel introduced her more comfortable, almost boxy, suit, relieved by a blouse with a pussycat bow, the long, slim look of a nipped-in waist and narrow skirt remained a popular silhouette.

For day wear and casual occasions, a wide skirt was worn without the large crinolines, for a soft, draped appearance. Shirtwaist dresses,often worn by TV housewives, were a popular alternative to the more exaggerated styles.

Halter-topped dresses were a casual alternative for the beach, or for summer cookouts and parties.

Popular Prints of the 1950s

After the austere colors of the 1940s, prints came back in a big way. From stripes to florals, prints generally appeared in colors on a white background.

• Wild floral skirts, like the one above, contrasted with a plain-colored, short-sleeved knit top.
• Stripes of all kinds appeared, from bold black-and-white horizontals to thin black or dark blue stripes on a light background, often worn with 3/4-length sleeves.
• Polka dots showed up in contrasting colors, like red on white (and vice versa), or dark blue and white, or white on white with nubby or textured dots.
• Embroidered designs and appliqués were often featured near the hem of a wide skirt. A felt poodle appliqué became the iconic symbol of 50s style and is often worn today for 50s parties or for Halloween.

Fabric and Technology of the 1950s

New advances in mass production allowed for more garments to be manufactured at greater speed and in greater quantity than ever before. As production speed increased, clothing became more affordable, and off-the-rack manufacturers hurried to copy the designs of haute couture.

Fabric Types

Nylon, no longer needed for wartime parachutes, became a fashion staple used to make hose, lingerie, blouses, and sportswear.

Though cotton was still a popular choice for summer clothing, Dacron and rayon reduced ironing chores with their no-wrinkle textures. Laundry chores became simpler with the new drip-dry garments. The new fabric blends included two-way stretch materials that offered figure control for swimwear.

Synthetic fibers and blends cut into the wool industry's market share while freeing consumers from pesky moths that, in the past, could destroy wool garments stored in the closet.

Women in Pants

When women pulled on pants to work in the factories during World War II, they discovered a new kind of freedom and comfort. From loose hostess pants to tight knit slacks and short shorts, trousers made inroads into women's fashions.

The side zipper was a popular closure as it left a smooth front and seemed dressier than front-zipped jeans. Straps attached to the hems of slacks pulled wrinkles of the fabric, for a sleek, tapered look.

Women at home or at the beach wore short shorts with tucked-in blouses, or shirts tied at the midriff. Pedal pushers ended just below the knee, while Capri pants ended at the lower calf, in a casual yet sophisticated style. But for dress occasions outside the home, for going downtown or to church, dresses were still a must.

Accessories of the 1950s

• Gloves. A well-dressed woman wore gloves and a hat outside the home for all but the most casual occasions. Long, elbow-length gloves appeared for formal and evening wear with short-sleeved dresses or strapless gowns. Short gloves worked with suits or long-sleeved garments and were also worn in warmer months.
• Hats. The New Look premiered beneath wide-brimmed garden-style hats. But smaller hats prevailed for most of the 1950s. Tidy little hats adorned with veils were popular and came in an assortment of colors, often pastels for spring and summer.
• Glasses became a fashion statement and featured new designs like the cat's-eye style with flared, pointed edges. Frames came in a wide variety of colors.
• Jewelry was classic and understated. Pearls or faux pearls were the iconic necklace of the 1950s. Plastic pop beads were a popular costume accessory. Slim watches and subdued rings, along with clip-on earrings, were conservative and elegant.
• Shoes. High heels worn for dressy occasions had rounded toes, often with peep-toes. But a new sense of comfort crept into women's footwear. Espadrilles were a popular choice for beach and vacation wear. Tennis shoes were worn around the home and garden and came in simple styles for maximum comfort. Saddle oxfords, a relic of the 1940s, were popular with the younger set, often paired with short socks called bobby socks.

Undergarments

A well dressed woman wore a variety of undergarments including a bra and panties. A bra added bust support and helped create the hour glass figure that was the style of the day. Slips were worn under pencil skirts while petticoats helped to maintain the shape of a New Look style skirt.

Garter belts supported nylon stockings. For casual wear, socks were worn with pants. Teenagers wore short socks called Bobby socks with New Look style skirts.

To maintain the tiny waist needed to look good in most styles, women wore girdles. A girdle could fit slightly above the waist or just to the waistline. Some girdles extended down to the thigh. Girdles were worn with dresses, skirts, and pants to create a smooth, slim look.

Hairstyles

• Long hair, often worn by young girls, was drawn up into ponytails, or pulled into a French twist for formal occasions.
• The Italian cut featured short, loose curls for a sophisticated yet free look.
• Bangs, worn with both short and longer hairstyles, were worn short and curled.
• The page boy was a medium length style that was sleek with the ends turned under.
• Black women and white women with very curly hair often had their hair chemically straightened or used hot combs for a sleek look.
• The bouffant and bubble cut relied on teasing (back combing) and hairspray to maintain a poufy hair style.

Influential Fashion Designers of the 1950s

While Christian Dior gave birth to 50s fashion with his New Look in 1947, many other designers influenced the decade.

• Clare McCardell, an American designer, had introduced a casual country-girl look to clothing in the 40's using denim and gingham. She continued to design clothing throughout the 50's.

• Cristóbal Balenciaga gave us the 3/4 length sleeve. His designs offered a looser style that released women from stiffly structured tailored garments. Combining a loose coat with a pencil skirt created a unique new appearance. His 1957 sack dress without a waistline evolved into the shift-style dress that became so popular in the 1960s.

• Hubert de Givenchy was famous for creating clothing for his favorite muses Audrey Hepburn and Jackie Kennedy. He entered the Paris couture scene at an early age with designs based on separates with a youthful appeal.

• Coco Chanel reestablished herself as a designer after World War II with wearable clothing. Her boxy suits with contrasting trim, worn with a soft blouse adorned by a pussy-cat bow, were created for ease of movement. In 1955, she introduced her signature quilted handbag with a gilt chain strap; it is still popular.

1950s Fashion Icons

Movie stars stood as fashion icons of the 50s, wearing clothing on and off the movie set created for them by fashion designers.

• Audrey Hepburn, whose look inspired Givenchy, created an air of youthful grace. With her slim figure, unusual in a time that celebrated a mature hour-glass silhouette, Audrey became a fashion icon still admired and copied today.
• Grace Kelly's classic clothing style came across wonderfully in films like Rear Window. Her elegant yet natural style reflected an inner beauty. Hermes created the famous Kelly bag for the actress-turned-princess in order to shield her "baby bump" from the press.
• Barbara Billingsley, or as the world knows her, June Cleaver, was a housewife who wore pencil skirts and pearls to clean her home. The iconic 50s TV mother can be seen in reruns for a great look at how women were supposed to dress.
• Doris Day symbolized a healthy, girl-next-door beauty combined with a perky kind of sensuality and was often portrayed in films and movie magazines wearing the casual clothing styles that became so popular in the 50s.

Alternative Fashion

"Beatnik" was the name coined to describe a group of intellectuals, artists, and poets in the 1950s. Much like bohemians of other eras, the beatniks stood against mass consumerism and the conservative ideals of the day.

Female beatniks rejected fashion trends and wore their hair long and natural. They did not use makeup. Unlike the bohemians (and later hippies) who played with historic styles and clothing concepts, the beatniks wore modern garments in an austere manner.

Beatniks were often portrayed in media as cute, funny characters who wore black turtlenecked shirts and played bongos. In the movie Funny Face, Audrey Hepburn portrayed a beatnik kind of girl who worked in a bookstore.

Grace Kelly (above) has it all: wasp waist, pearls, gloves, hair curled at the ends.

For Further Reading

Encyclopedia of Clothing and Fashion; Edited by Valene Steele; Scribner Library

Fashions of a Decade - The 1950s; Patricia Baker; Chelsea House; London; 2006

The Fifties; David Halberstam; Ballantine Books; Random House; New York; 1993

Fashionable Clothing From the Sears Catalogs Mid 1950s by Tina Skinner

Fashionable Clothing From the Sears Catalogs Early 1950s by Desire Smith

Fashionable Clothing From the Sears Catalogs Late 1950s by Joy Shih

Questions & Answers

Question: Where can I get plus size vintage clothes?

Answer: Vintage plus-sized clothes are hard to find. In general, American women are taller and heavier than they were in the past. American women weigh fifteen pounds more than they did twenty years ago with 68% wearing size 14 or above. While the average height was 5'3" and weight 140 pounds in the 1960s, today American women average 5'4" tall and 168 pounds.

When I was a skinny young thing, I had trouble finding vintage clothing that fit properly due to being tall and somewhat broad-shouldered., so you don't have to be a plus-size to have trouble finding older garments that fit properly.

Some vintage stores are trying to source larger sized vintage clothing due to demand. There are some online sites like Ballyhoo Vintage Clothing which offers plus-sized vintage dress from the 1930s through the 1960s. Etsy offers larger sized vintage clothing, especially garments from the 1970s.

Berriez, a vintage shop in Brooklyn, New York sells plus size vintage on its Instagram account. Also check out Belen's Linens, Blue Velvet Vintage, and Bloomers and Frocks.

You can also look for retro or vintage style, new clothing made to look like actual vintage. If you are looking for the real thing, authentic old clothing, be careful when you shop online. Many sites make it look like the clothing is actually old when it is a reproduction or based on vintage clothing.

Perry has been a technical writer for over 10 years for biotech and I.T. firms.

Beauty Ideals of the 1950s

Some of the most idolized actresses of the 1950s, including Jayne Mansfield, Sophia Loren, and Marilyn Monroe, were known for their on-screen charisma, off-screen star power, and all-the-time sex appeal. One thing all three of these actresses shared—and often flaunted—were their ample bosoms.

It was around this time that the medical community began seriously investigating the idea of surgically enhancing breasts.

A Young Woman From Texas

Our story begins with a young woman from Texas named Timmie Jean Lindsey. Raised in a poor family, she dropped out of high school to get married and had six children by the age of 26. Then she and her husband divorced, leaving her a single mom with few resources.

She began dating a new man named Fred Reyes, who suggested that she get two rose tattoos, one on each breast. She did so—but then immediately regretted her decision.

Neither Timmie nor her boyfriend had much money, so Timmie went to a charity hospital called Jefferson Medical, which was a training hospital for medical students. The doctor she saw, Frank Gerow, was a young plastic surgeon who decided he'd found a good candidate for the experimental silicone breast implant surgery he'd been developing with a colleague, Thomas Cronin. The two doctors had done lab research, but they hadn't yet found a human subject.

Dr. Gerow told Timmie he would remove her tattoos, but he also suggested that she allow him to surgically augment her breasts with silicone implants. He described the procedure as being for women who had low self-esteem due to their small and/or sagging breasts. Timmie's breasts were small, and they were indeed sagging as a result of having had six children in nine years, but she was more concerned with her ears. She thought they stuck out too much. She agreed to the implants only if the doctor would also pin her ears back. A deal was struck, and shortly thereafter the first silicone implants were inserted. The year was 1962.

Timmie's Post-Surgery Experience

Ten days after the surgery, the bandages were removed and Timmie looked in the mirror for the first time. She liked what she saw.

She had gone from a B cup to a C cup. She later said, "When I had the implants put in, I would get wolf whistles when I walked down the street. I truly believe women should be free to choose. But, to be honest, there are times when I think I would like to have mine taken out."

By the 1970s, Timmie began to experience some pain as well as some hardening of the silicone implants. By the '80s, the pain had increased substantially. She suffered from rashes, dry mouth, and shooting pain in the breast areas. Eventually, at the age of 79, her implants started to tear.

Timmie's own daughter had an implant in the 1980s that ruptured. Timmie's sister-in-law had an implant that ruptured, as well, killing her in the '90s.

By this time, the company that manufactured the silicone implants, Dow Corning, had begun to come under fire. In 1991, a woman named Mariann Hopkins was awarded $7.3 million in damages for complications she suffered as a result of her implants. More lawsuits quickly followed, and by 1995, Dow Corning filed for bankruptcy.

Breast Implants Today

In 2006, the FDA lifted its ban on silicone implants, and today they are gaining in popularity once again. Saline implants are also very popular.

According to the American Society of Plastic Surgeons, breast augmentation is the most popular form of plastic surgery in the United States. In the year 2018, over 310,000 procedures were performed. It is interesting to note, however, that in the same year, just over 48,000 implant removal procedures were performed.

What's clear is that while some women will choose to undergo the knife to change their appearance in ways that they believe will make them more beautiful or attractive, a subset of that group will later come to regret that decision.

Sources and Further Reading

• Are Breast Implants Safe? Experts Weigh In | Oprah Daily
  Breast implants have been linked to autoimmune conditions as well as an increased risk of a rare type of cancer. Here's what to know and what to do.
• A brief history of breast enlargements | BBC News
  It is 50 years since the first breast enlargement using silicone implants. Today it rates as the second-most popular form of cosmetic surgery worldwide.
• Timeline: A short history of breast implants | Reuters
  Breast implants are pockets of liquid that are placed inside a breast to increase its size or adjust its appearance. There are two main kinds, containing either saline (salt water) or silicone, a squishy gel.
• Book Review | National Center for Biotechnology Information
  In 1962, Timmie Jean Lindsey was twenty-nine years old, a divorced Texan mother of six children. One day, on an impulse, she allowed a boyfriend to persuade her to have a large tattoo of a rose inked onto her breast.
• Breast Implants: Silicone Vs. Saline, Cost, Problems, Recovery | WebMD
  WebMD explains breast augmentation, including the pros and cons of saline and silicone implants, cost of surgery, potential problems and complications, and recovery time.

Sabrina is a connoisseur of popular culture and appreciates the nostalgia of 80s fashion trends.

What's the Inspiration Behind the Fashion Trends of the 80s?

Most of the 80s trends came from television shows, commercials, and music videos. If famous people like Michael Jackson wore high-water pants on TV, then they would become a fashion trend. Some people remember "alligator shirts," and some remember the ever-so-popular Jheri curls.

Most people in the 80s got fashion trend ideas and inspiration from TV shows like:

• Different Strokes
• Dynasty
• Silver Spoons
• Miami Vice
• Family Ties
• The Facts of Life

Musicians and the Fashion Trends They Made Popular

Music videos also had an effect on 80s shoe and clothing trends. The music videos and musicians behind these trends were:

• Madonna
• Michael Jackson
• Boy George
• Cindy Lauper
• Jody Watley
• Prince
• Duran Duran

What Shoes Were Worn in the 80s?

Shoes worn in the 80s were fun to wear—at least children thought so. The 80s shoes bring back good memories for many people of the decade or era. As a child, I'm glad to have owned pairs of LA Gears, Crayons, Jellies, Click-Clacks, Pumas, K-Swiss, Reebok, Lottos, and other brand name shoes.

Some children didn't get to wear all the name brands and had to wear shoes from local grocery stores. Parents in low-income areas had to buy styles that they could afford for the time being, and these shoes were called "bubble yums" by other children.

The Most Popular Shoes of the 80s

• Jellies
• Crayons
• Stacie Adams
• Vans
• Converse All Stars
• Gas
• Buster Browns
• Penny Loafers
• Boat shoes
• Karate shoes
• Crocasacks
• Louis Vuitton
• Adidas
• Fila
• Lotto
• Guess

Popular Shoe Styles Continued

• Gucci
• Pumas
• K-Swiss
• LA Gears
• Nike
• Reebok
• Swede flats
• Leather flats
• Leather hills
• Leather pumps
• Leather sandals
• Espadrille
• Oxfords
• Dr. Scholls (Click Clacks)
• Tassel Moccasins
• Timberland's men casual wear

Hottest Trends of the 80s

The 80s Were One of the Most Fun Fashion Eras

Watching TV shows from the 80s era brings back a few memories.Some of the fashion trends of the 80's are still popular today like Nike shoes, hoop earrings, boat shoes.

During the 80s, some people wore "airbrushing" art on nearly all their clothing. People also wore big chunk jewelry as necklaces, bracelets, anklets, rings. Wearing 14 karat gold was the trend. Blue jeans, especially name brands, were really popular: stone washed, stretched, bell bottoms, skinny jeans, etc. Eighties accessories were Hot! Belts with jeans were a huge fashion statement, sometimes made of snakeskin, in many colors. The snakeskin style also appeared in purses, shoes, designs on acrylic fingernails, and other items.

Females in urban areas wore acrylic fingernails often as a fashion statement, with airbrush designs and hoop earrings.

Shoes Worn in the 80s Poll

© 2012 Brinafr3sh

Comments

Smashley on May 22, 2020:

What about Tretorns?? Dang! They were the shizzz!! Haha

Wesley Holmes on October 28, 2018:

I want to buy crayons for men. If anyone knows someone that makes them, please let me know.

Brinafr3sh (author) from West Coast, United States on December 02, 2014:

Hi Shirley, I agree the Crayon shoes should be sold again. They are cute and casual. I had the black suede Crayon shoes with the transparent blue heel, when I was a child in the 80's. It would be great if they were sold in every color like they were in the 1980s.

Shirley on December 01, 2014:

When will Crayon Shoes come back? I loved them! Someone please bring them back, only with heels from 1in. to 3in.!

Brinafr3sh (author) from West Coast, United States on April 19, 2012:

Hi Hubert, people like a little old school history. Glad you this hub, thanks.

Hubert Williams on April 18, 2012:

A very good hub about what we ude to wear. I have to look into the dirty clothes basket to remember what I wore yesterday. I still enjoyed your story. Thanks. Up and Interesting

Brinafr3sh (author) from West Coast, United States on April 18, 2012:

Hi Incomeguru, Yeah some of the shoe styles in the 80s are in now, I agree. I like nearly everything oldschool. Thanks for your comment.

:)

Oyewole Folarin from Lagos on April 18, 2012:

Shoes wore in the 80s are what designers of today redesign to form those trending now. Very interesting hub. Thanks for sharing this old skool stuff.

Brinafr3sh (author) from West Coast, United States on April 18, 2012:

Hi ChristinS, Thanks for reading this article, glad you like it as well.

Christin Sander from Midwest on April 17, 2012:

I wore many of these shoes myself. I remember the jellies for sure. I also remember Reebok tennis shoes being a big deal when I was in school too and those flats with the bows on them as well. thanks for the memories lol :) voted up and interesting.

My granddaughters, my grandsons, and my niece absolutely love being in pageants.

Tips for Being a Good Judge

I’ve had a lot of experience with pageants. I’ve served as a judge and a coordinator. I've been a pageant mom, too. My grandchildren and my niece have been active in beauty pageants as well, and I’ve helped coach and prepare them. I’ve been in the audience, so I’ve done my share of “seat judging.” I've been involved in many types of pageants: glitz, natural, charity, scholarship, face, semi-glitz, and low-glitz. I’ve also had a hand in choosing and designing outfits and stoning (adding rhinestones to) winning dresses.

Early on, I learned the importance of how to judge a pageant fairly. If you’ve been asked to judge, consider these tips.

How Important Are the Judges?

First of all, you need to realize how important your job is as judge. Even small pageants should be taken seriously. The event might not seem like a big deal to you, but I assure you that it is, indeed, a big deal for most of the contestants and their parents. These people put a lot of time, money, and practice into competing, and they expect to be judged fairly. In view of the circumstances, they deserve to be judged fairly.

Of course, no matter how fairly the competition is judged, there will be some hurt feelings and some disappointed contestants. There’s no way around this, as everyone can’t win the crown. Just do the best job you can possibly do in your capacity as judge.

Stick to the Judging Criteria!

Before agreeing to be a judge, ask the director for a score sheet that lists the judging criteria and guidelines of the pageant. Make sure you understand all of the information. Know what’s allowed and what isn’t allowed, and stick to it. For example, if the rules state that the girls aren’t allowed to wear flippers, makeup, wigs, or falls, you’ll have to deduct some major points for any contestant breaking the rules.

It’s a good idea to talk to the director before the event. Ask her what she’s looking for. Some directors are pretty specific in what they want. For example, she might tell you she is looking for a natural-looking contestant in a simple dress. On the other hand, she might tell you she wants a winner who’s polished and high-glitz, and that makeup, glitz dresses and gowns, flippers, and "pageant" hair is encouraged. If that’s the case, don’t give high scores to contestants who don’t fit the criteria.

Beauty Pageant Dresses and Pageant Gowns

Pageant dresses and gowns usually make up a hefty portion of the overall score, so judge them accordingly. You can’t judge the dress on its own, however. You have to judge the dress on the girl. You might see a gorgeous dress on stage, but if the color and style don’t match the girl well, points should be deducted.

Dresses and gowns also have to fit the contestant well. Consider whether the dress is too short, too long, too tight, or too loose. Also, ask yourself if the dress is age-appropriate. Dresses for little girls should have a “sweet look” and not look sexy. Gowns for older girls shouldn’t be too revealing, either.

Baby Beauty Pageants

Baby beauty pageants are tough to judge. You’ll probably be required to award points for stage presence, personality, and maybe even for poise. How much stage presence and poise can a baby have? Before agreeing to be a judge, ask the director for guidance. She’ll probably tell you that you can lump stage presence and poise in with personality. Unfortunately, it’s often difficult to judge a baby’s personality, too. I usually tried to determine whether or not the baby was happy on stage. In some cases, that’s really the best you can do.

Beauty Pageants for Toddlers

Beauty pageants for toddlers are fun to judge! They don’t yet understand the concept of winning and losing, so they’re usually not under any pressure. In most cases, personality should play a big part here. Most judges will award more points to a toddler who’s happy and having fun on stage, as opposed to a toddler who’s too “stiff.” I never liked to see little “robots” on stage.

It’s fairly easy to tell if a toddler is enjoying herself by her smile and level of animation. A lively, smiling, giggling contestant should get a good score on stage presence and personality. In my opinion, these things are more important for toddlers than missing a cue or not making a proper turn.

Child Beauty Pageants

Most of my experience has been with child beauty pageants. For me, it is harder to judge children than toddlers. Some of these girls are serious and the competition can be fierce. Even at an early age, many contestants are polished and seasoned, so poise really begins to count, although personality should still be a major factor.

You’ll see kids who “own the stage.” This is hard to explain, but you’ll know it when you see it. Such kids have the “wow factor”—not just for their dress and physical appearance, but also for their confidence and ease on stage. Such a girl should definitely be awarded major points.

The “Total Package”

Some directors will tell you that they are looking for the “total package.” What does that mean? From my experience with glitz pageants, most directors looking for a total-package girl want her to have a great dress or gown, a tan, perfect teeth and smile, appropriate shoes, the right earrings, and a perfect hairdo. Even their nails should be neat and manicured. Younger girls should have some sort of bow or other hair adornment, and it should be in keeping with the dress. The package also includes natural beauty, poise, confidence, stage presence, and personality.

Pageant Swimwear

There is often a swimwear category. If you are a judge, there are several points to ponder. How does the suit fit? How does the color and style go with the contestant? Is the swimwear unique and attractive? In addition to the outfit, you’ll need to judge how the contestant presents herself. In other words, how well does she do modeling? It’s also important to keep in mind that swimwear should be age-appropriate.

Casual Wear/Costume/Outfit of Choice

Many pageants include competitions for casual wear and/or an outfit of choice. Some might include costumes as a separate competition or as part of outfit of choice. Some of these outfits can be amazingly elaborate, and they might even include some serious props. Consider creativity and originality here.

One again, age appropriateness should be considered, along with how the girl models her outfit. In other words, you’ll need to judge her routine in addition to the outfit, in most cases. Don't get too hung up on the prop though. It should certainly be considered in the score if it helps the theme of the outfit, but it shouldn't get more of your attention than the outfit itself.

Write Helpful Comments

I think it’s extremely important for judges to make written comments on score sheets. You’ll have only a minute or two to judge the girls, so your comments will need to be short and to the point. Even so, such comments can provide great feedback for contestants as a way to improve for the next pageant.

Be Constructive But Positive

I always used this opportunity to provide constructive criticism and tried to include at least one positive comment along with the criticism. Most parents don’t like their children to be criticized, so I think a positive comment helps to soften the blow, so to speak. For example, if a girl’s dress is too long, you might say, “dress too long,” and add “great smile” or “beautiful girl” to it. The parents will know that they need to alter the dress before the next round of beauty pageants.

Questions & Answers

Question: how should I dress as a pageant judge?

Answer: Business casual is the norm for most pageants.

Question: Can I wear a dinner gown as a judge?

Answer: It depends on the pageant. Ask the director.

Question: What are the requirements for being a child beauty pageant judge?

Answer: That depends on the specific pageant and/or the pageant system. Check with the directors.

Comments

habee on July 14, 2019:

Yves, thanks for reading!

Yves on July 12, 2019:

Very interesting. I did have to laugh at the idea of judging babies for poise. Lol. That would be a tough call, no doubt. At any rate, you're obviously good at judging. I must say that your niece is quite the lovely pageant queen. She obviously has a big personality!

I enjoyed reading this piece and was glad to discover that judges try their best to take the feelings of contestants into account. That being said, one has to learn how to lose as graciously as we learn how to win. In so doing, we're always a winner in the long run!

Emelia on June 21, 2018:

Very informative and right on point.... The emotional aspects well noted

habee on September 04, 2017:

Aseal, just try to be constructive without being critical. Point out the good, along with pointing out the areas that need improvement. Good luck!

Asael Gacosta on September 03, 2017:

Your article is very informative.. this will help me a lot because i've been invited as a judge for the upcoming pageant.. but can i ask for more suggestions when it comes in giving comments to the contestants? Could you give some other examples that would help to improve their performance on stage.

sally tritton on June 09, 2017:

Its a minefield for a judge for sure this is only my second time judging (pre teen and teen pageants) and I've seen how it can elate or destroy a young girl's confidence there are so many beautiful girls with extreme intelligence or out there doing wonderful things in there community I have found this page extremely helpful and informative

thank you :)

vibesites from United States on December 12, 2013:

You have definitely beauty running in your blood... Lovely children. The swimsuit shown above is proper.

Thank you for your tips. Who knows, I could be invited to a beauty contest as judge (if not as a contestant lol just kidding). :)

Katie6875 on October 21, 2013:

I am going to be in a pageant and i was wondering where you can get that holiday wear outfit. I love it!!!

Holle Abee (author) from Georgia on April 11, 2012:

Marcy, you're right - beauty pageants can be very emotional. Thanks for reading!

Holle Abee (author) from Georgia on April 11, 2012:

Felina, beauty pageants are a lot of work for everyone involved. This especially true for glitz pageants!

Holle Abee (author) from Georgia on April 11, 2012:

Thanks, Rox!

Doc, the oldest girl (Asian) is my niece. She still competes. Thanks!

Holle Abee (author) from Georgia on April 11, 2012:

Leros, it was for me, too, at first. Thanks for visiting!

Holle Abee (author) from Georgia on April 11, 2012:

Thanks, wetnose!

Teaches, judging a beauty pageant is tough! I want to give the crown to everyone. lol

Holle Abee (author) from Georgia on April 11, 2012:

Margie, I always took judging beauty pageants very seriously!

Marcy Goodfleisch from Planet Earth on April 09, 2012:

Super interesting! It's a whole other world and culture - truly unique. I like your point on the importance participants place on competitions; people need to remember the emotional effort that goes into them as well as the time and money!

Felina Margetty from New York, New York on April 08, 2012:

Wow I am flabbergasted, a lot of work goes into one of these pageants. I had no idea. This is an insightful hub. Thank you

drbj and sherry from south Florida on April 05, 2012:

Easy to tell from all this well-written inside information. Holle, that you have been a pageant judge many times. Your oldest granddaughter is gorgeous, BTW. Does she still compete in pageants? Just wonderin'.

Roxanne Lewis from Washington on April 05, 2012:

Very informative! Thanks

leros003 from Orlando, FL on April 05, 2012:

This is definitely eye opening to me!

Dianna Mendez on April 04, 2012:

It would so hard for me to judge a pageant as I find all the contestants to be beautiful and talented. Loved the photos posted and the article.

wetnosedogs from Alabama on April 04, 2012:

Wonderful pictures.

Mmargie1966 from Gainesville, GA on April 04, 2012:

I had no idea how much goes into judging pageants! Fun read, thanks!

Women's fashion styles are of great interest to Phyllis. The drastic changes that women have had to endure for fashion is phenomenal.

1892 Women's Fashion Shaped by a Corset

Corsets: Attractive or Torturous?

The corset was considered a great asset to make women more attractive and curvaceous. Yet, it was a torturous contraption that often caused women to faint and possibly deform their bodies. No wonder women in the early days often retired to their bedrooms in the middle of the day to remove clothing and lie down for a while. No wonder establishments and homes often provided a “fainting room.”

As in Gone With The Wind, Scarlet and the other women at all-day summer gatherings languished in rooms set up with many beds and couches where they could undress, relax, and breath normally for a few hours.

When wearing a tightly laced corset the waist became tiny, which made the woman's body look more voluptuous. The negative side of this caused the woman to breathe with the top part of the lungs, which caused irregular, heavy breathing which caused the bosom to heave rapidly at times.

This was also considered attractive—to see a woman's bosom heaving up and down and caught the attention of men. Little did the men realize the woman was probably in pain or finding it difficult to breath. This also caused mucous to collect in the bottom part of the lungs, causing a persistent cough.

1890 Corset

Corset Construction

Corsets are usually made of a flexible material and then stiffened with boning which is inserted into channels sewn in the cloth. Sometimes leather is used for the corset— yes, corsets are still made today. Today's corsets are made mostly for fashion and giving the woman more sexual appeal, but these are not as constrictive as the corsets of times past.

Sometimes, for health reasons and body support, a medical corset made to individual specifications is worn. Warehouse workers, both men and women, often wear an elastic support, much like a corset, around the waist to give support to the lower back when lifting and bending often.

In the 19th century, the boning that stiffened the corset was made from elephant, moose, or whalebone. Ivory, wood, or cane was also used, but not as often. Then there came the metal ribs or stays which really made the corset stiff. How nice that must have been. In the late 16th century there were corsets of iron. Good grief!

Iron Corset From the Late 16th Century

Lacing

As if the boning (ribs, stays) were not enough, someone decided to put in laces from top to bottom on the corset. After the woman put on the corset over her chemise, these laces were carefully and evenly tightened until the waist was as small as the woman could tolerate, sometimes as small as 14" . . . ouch!

The more affluent woman would have a back laced corset that her maid would tighten for her as the woman held on to a bedpost or other immovable object with all her strength. The knee of the maid was sometimes pressed against the woman's backside so the laces could be pulled as tightly as possible.

Singer and actress Polaire (Émilie Marie Bouchaud) was famous for her tiny waist of just fourteen inches—made possible by tight lacing of her corset.

French Actress Polaire Showing Off Her Waist, c. 1900

History and Invention

Some scholars attributed the invention of the corset to Catherine de' Medici, the wife of King Henry II of France. This has been debated, but Catherine did enforce a ban on thick waists when attending court during the 1550s. Other research found that in early Crete times there is evidence of corsets being worn. Women suffered to have beautiful voluptuous bodies for a period of almost 350 years—the corset being the primary means of support and shaping.

In the early 16th century the corset, known as "stays" then, was a simple bodice with tabs at the waist. These stays were stiffened with horn, buckram, and whalebone. A busk (center front) was made of ivory, wood, or metal. These corsets with busks were laced in the back and were originally used only by women of the aristocracy.

Catherine de' Medici

16th to 18th Centuries

The earliest corsets were called "payre of bodies" (pair of bodies, or bodice) and were usually worn with a farthingale (hoop or frame), that held the skirts out and away from the body.

This payre of bodies forced the upper torso into the shape of a cylinder. This flattened the bust and pushed the breasts up. This provided less emphasis of the smallness of the waist and more focus on the contrast between the rigid flatness of the bodice front and curving mounds of the breasts seductively showing over the top of the corset.

The 18th century saw a change in the shape a woman could achieve with stays that gave an inverted conical shape. This fashion created a contrast between a rigid cylindrical torso above heavy full skirts below. The purpose was to raise and shape the breast.

The predominant form of stays in the 18th-century was an inverted conical shape, often worn to create a contrast between a rigid quasi-cylindrical torso above the waist and heavy full skirts below.

The primary purpose of 18th century stays was to raise and shape the breasts, tighten the midriff, support the back, improve posture to help a woman stand straight, with the shoulders down and back, and only slightly narrow the waist, creating a "V" shaped upper torso over which the outer garment would be worn.

Women also had the option of wearing a “jump” made of quilted linen during informal times. The jump was only partially boned, added a little support, and was much more comfortable.

This was far less confining, did not restrict breathing, and allowed more ease of movement. It did restrict bending at the waist, which did help when lifting, for it forced the woman to lift with the legs and thereby protecting the back.

French Farthingale Circa 1580

Late 18th to Early 19th Centuries

The high-waist empire style dress totally took focus off the waist and created a very soft and feminine look. Stays were still worn, yet they were quite short and ended just below the bust line.

With the waist of dresses being raised to just under the bust line, the corset became more of a means to support the breasts. This more relaxed and softly feminine style did not last long when there was a transition to the Victorian style of dress.

Short Stays Corset for the Empire Dress Fashion

Victorian Corset

When fashion dropped the waistline back down to the natural position, the corset came back. It’s function then was to support the breasts and narrow the waist. The purpose was to achieve an hourglass figure. In the 1840s and 1850s, the corset became longer and flared out, ending several inches below the waist. It created an exaggerated curvaceous figure which became possible with tight lacing. Spiral steel stays curved with the figure.

Scarlet O'Hara in her lovely dress with green floral on white and yards upon yards of fabric for the extremely full skirt was a highlight of the barbecue in the opening of Gone With The Wind. Her dress was a fine example of this fashion style.

In the late 19th century concern about physical problems associated with tight lacing caused a movement for rational dress. Some doctors were found to support the theory that corsets were injurious to health, especially during pregnancy.

Corset With Crinoline, 1859 Fashion

Edwardian Corset

From about 1900 to early 1910, the straight front corset was considered better for the woman’s health. Inez Gaches-Sarraute, a corsetiere with a degree in medicine, was influential in the popularity of this corset style. It was referred to as the “S-Bend,” or health corset.

The very rigid, straight busk in the center front forced the bust forward and the hips back, giving the appearance of a smaller waist. This was intended to exert less pressure on the stomach area. In reality, any benefit to the stomach area was offset by the unnatural posture that it forced upon its wearer. By 1908, corsets began to fall from favor as the silhouette changed to a higher waistline and more naturalistic form.

Early forms of brassieres were introduced and the girdle soon took the place of the corset which was more concerned with reducing the hips rather than the waist. Ah, yes—the girdle and brassiere! Now that brought about another form of torture for many women. You know, under all these contraptions, a woman’s body is still going to be the way it is meant to be—soft and natural.

I am not against the corset fashions of today. I think the corsets of today are lovely and very flattering to a woman's figure—and not torturous. Some of the ads I see have such pretty and very feminine corsets.

© 2012 Phyllis Doyle Burns

Comments

Phyllis Doyle Burns (author) from High desert of Nevada. on May 31, 2020:

Stephanie, I did thorough research and my article is based on facts, not the personal opinion of a costume designer/wearer. Thank you for reading.

Stephanie on May 27, 2020:

This information about corsets being ill-fitting and "extremely harmful" is fake. Please watch a video made by a historical costume designer/wearer such as bernadette banner or karolina kebrowska.

Phyllis Doyle Burns (author) from High desert of Nevada. on April 16, 2020:

Hi Mary and thanks for reading and commenting. Obviously you are quite young or have not done any research on the history of women's corsets. I have done extensive research on the subject. Here are just a few sources which mention some physical and health issues from wearing the corsets in early times:

The straight-front, corset was popularized by Inès Gaches-Sarraute [fr], a corsetiere with a degree in medicine. It was intended to be less injurious to wearers' health than other corsets in that it exerted less pressure on the stomach area. However, any benefits to the stomach were more than counterbalanced by injury caused to the back due to the unnatural posture that it forced upon its wearer. At this time, the bust lowered and corsets provided much less support for the breasts.

However, in 1968 at the feminist Miss America protest, protestors symbolically threw a number of feminine products into a "Freedom Trash Can." These included girdles and corsets,[20] which were among items the protestors called "instruments of female torture"[21] and accouterments of what they argued were enforced femininity.

source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_corsets

When you wear this 500-year-old device, you squish your lungs and ribs, which makes it hard to breathe. (Duh.) Some women have actually passed

out from wearing one for too long, says Christopher Ochner, Ph.D., weight loss and nutrition expert at Mount Sinai Hospital. And if you keep

wearing it for an extended period of time? It ain't pretty: Think crushed organs, compressed lungs, and fractured ribs.

source: https://www.marieclaire.com/health-

fitness/a13489/celebrities-swear-by-it-but-is-waist-training-actually-healthy/

In 1908, a doctor used X-rays to highlight the damaging effects of tight corsets on a woman's body.

This caused, of course, the familiar fainting to which fashionable young ladies were prone; they were often laced so tightly that they could barely

breathe; to help her recover, those around her would loosen her stays (the laces), allowing air to flood back into her constricted lungs.

The effect of tight restriction on the lungs was particularly troubling; the lower lobes of the lungs are prevented from expanded fully when taking

a breath, resulting in extra strain. This exacerbated lung conditions such as tuberculosis and pneumonia, which effect the lower lungs first,

making the condition much more serious -- and both illnesses were much more prevalent before the invention of vaccines in the 20th century.

Overall, there seems to be little direct evidence that tight lacing had permanent effects on the wearer. Nevertheless, the restriction of the organs -- which could cause poor digestion, poor breathing and poor function otherwise while wearing a tightly laced corset -- was a cause for concern for some doctors.

source: https://www.cnet.com/news/vintage-x-rays-reveal-th...

“It is difficult to imagine a slavery more senseless, cruel, or far-reaching in its injurious consequences than that imposed by fashion on civilized

womanhood during the past generation. Her health has been sacrificed, and in countless instances her life has paid the penalty; while posterity has been dwarfed, maimed, and enervated, and in body, mind, and soul deformed at its behests. … [T]he tight lacing required by the wasp waists has produced generations of invalids and bequeathed to posterity suffering that will not vanish for many decades. By it, as has been pointed out by the authorities cited, every vital organ in the body has been seriously affected.”

The title page of “Fashion’s Slaves,” 1892.

So writes Benjamin Orange Flower in “Fashion’s Slaves,” a 32-page pamphlet published in 1892 as an appeal for women’s dress reform. One of the many causes Flower takes up is the corset, expressing his concern that the undergarment causes damage to internal organs. He continues,

“If women will continue this destructive habit, the race must inevitably deteriorate.”

source: https://nyamcenterforhistory.org/2015/05/29/did-co...

Mary on April 14, 2020:

Sorry, but corsets were more like brassieres than torturous deformity tubes. A well- fitted and sensibly laced corset would have been comfortable to the wearer, and the corset did not have to be stiffly boned or tightly laced to create a fashionable figure. The shaping comes from well-cut pattern pieces. Yes, a tight-laced corset could certainly be harmful, however, most women wore corsets as a means to support the bust and posture.

Phyllis Doyle Burns (author) from High desert of Nevada. on November 19, 2019:

Hi Juliet. Glad you enjoyed the article. I had a lot of fun researching and writing it. Thanks for reading and commenting.

Juliet on November 18, 2019:

I totally enjoyed the journey through these ages....there so much mysery about women and fashion trend

.

Phyllis Doyle Burns (author) from High desert of Nevada. on January 24, 2015:

Well ... why not? Big shirts are great. Thanks for the visit and comment, Asi.

Asi on January 24, 2015:

I loved this, it was amazing to see the evolution of the corset. I notice that on the contrary of people imagine, the women's fashion wasn't imposed by men. I am a male myself and i say women shouldn't wear unconfortable clothing. I am all to women wearing what makes them feel confortable and easy to moove, i mean i love fashion and i find very beautifull clothing that doesn't need to hurt women. Instead of high heels, tenis, instead of corsets, large shirts, why not?

Phyllis Doyle Burns (author) from High desert of Nevada. on July 13, 2013:

FlourishAnyway, thank you so much for the comments and votes -- it is much appreciated. Yes, we still do the high heel thing to our poor feet. I rarely wear mine anymore, but just cannot let them go.

FlourishAnyway from USA on July 13, 2013:

Nicely researched hub with illustrations/photos to match. It's amazing what women throughout history have put their bodies through. We still do it with high heels. Voted up and more!

Phyllis Doyle Burns (author) from High desert of Nevada. on June 29, 2013:

Torrilynn, thank you for the visit, read and comments. I know everyone has their own opinion and that is ok with with me. The corsets of today are lovely, alluring and very feminine. Corsets of the past were, in my opinion, not made for comfort. Thanks again for your visits and votes -- it is much appreciated.

torrilynn on June 29, 2013:

@Phyllis Doyle ive always been fascinated by corsets and the history behind them. I enjoyed your opinions on them and how you thought they were tortuous. So may agree some may dosagree. Voted up and sharing !

Phyllis Doyle Burns (author) from High desert of Nevada. on March 05, 2013:

Hello Cassidy,

Thank you for stopping by and reading my hub. Firstly, I apologize for being so late in reply to you. I have been taking classes/courses, have nightly homework, and many other issues that have drawn me away from HubPages for awhile. Yet, your comments do require some time, attention, and to address your concerns. Since you took the time to read and comment on my hub, it is only right that I reply to you.

Although I appreciate your reading and commenting, I am sorry that this article would depress you, yet I am not sorry I wrote it. That you state it is "tremendously exaggerated and full of myths" is certainly not true.

I did heavy research on the history of corsets and spent many days on it. I did not use myths as a statement of fact, nor did I exaggerate on any of the information I provided -- so, your assumption was not my intention.

I will reply to your statements in the same order you wrote them.

- Corsets are not "torturous contraptions" that cause great pain and suffering, let alone deformity.

MY REPLY: If you are referring to the corset fashions of today, I agree with you. The corset of today is a popular fashion for women. They are lovely and enhance the figure without pain or discomfort. For personal/private purposes, corsets and other intimate apparel enhance a relationship by accentuating feminine qualities. In the last paragraph of my hub, I wrote: "I am not against the corset fashions of today. I think the corsets of today are lovely and very flattering to a woman's figure -- and not torturous. Some of the ads I see have such pretty and very feminine corsets."

Now, let's go back to the days when corsets were a source of discomfort, pain, and "torture" for women. Torture in this sense

meaning difficulty in breathing, discomfort from forcing the body into an unnatural posture, restriction of movement, and fainting from lack of oxygen to the lungs. I recall my grandmother talking about how uncomfortable her corset made her feel and how sore she was when the corset was removed. I also recall grandmother saying that her mother often fainted because she could not breath fully, and sometimes fainted when the corset was removed and her body rebelled against the unnatural position it had been forced into.

As for deformity, this word is defined as:

de·for·mi·ty (Bing Dictionary)

disfigurement: the condition of being disfigured or badly formed

structural change from normal: a permanent change from normal body structure

something with shape far from normal: something that has a shape not normal for its kind or nature

Synonyms: disfigurement, malformation, distortion, abnormality, misshapenness, irregularity

I use the word deform in my hub in the sense that the corset was purposely used to reshape a body into an unnatural position, or to deform/distort the natural shape of the woman wearing it -- and this was done to conform to what fashion magazines, and society termed a flattering, womanly shape.

- The main point of the corset was not just to narrow the waist, but to round it (making it appear smaller), and to support the bust and the weight of the clothing.

MY REPLY: I disagree. The main point of the corset was to make a woman look more "beautiful and voluptuous". Catherine de' Medici, the wife of King Henry II of France, actually enforced a ban on thick waists when attending court during the 1550's. Any woman of the aristocracy had to appear in court with small waists, the corset being the primary means of shaping the body.

The purpose of corsets changed with time and the popular fashion of the day. In the 16th to 18th centuries the "payre of bodies" a type of corset, forced the upper torso in a cylinder shape, which flattened the bust and pushed the breasts up. The torso was then rigid and flat, while the breasts swelled up over the top of the corset.

The weight of clothing was supported by farthingales, bustles, and crinolines, which held the fabric of the skirts out away from the body.

- Nobody was lacing down to 14", and I think you'll have a very, very tough time trying to find an extant adult's corset that size.

MY REPLY: I disagree. Emilie Marie Bouchaud, the famous actress and singer commonly known as Polaire, had a 14" waist. This was possible because she had her corset laced tightly enough to reduce her waist size. There are some photographs of Polaire at Emilie marie bouchaud / Tumblr which you can refer to if you like.

- Corsets were not short after about 1810, even though the waist was high

MY REPLY: I disagree. When the high-waisted empire style dress became popular in the late 1700s, emphasis on a tiny small waist was not the focus. Short stays (corsets) were worn to support the breasts, giving a more softened look to a woman's figure. These corsets ended just below the bust line.

- Gone With the Wind is not an historical source, and contains a lot of the Victorian fetishization that was popular in the mid-20th century.

MY REPLY: I agree that the movie "Gone With The Wind" is not an historical source, nor did I say it was. What I wrote was "Scarlet

O'Hara in her lovely dress at the barbecue is a fine example of this style fashion." and "As in "Gone With The Wind", Scarlet and the other women at all day summer gatherings languished in rooms set up with many beds and couches where they could undress, relax, and breath normally for a few hours."

Margaret Mitchell, who wrote Gone With The Wind, was a fourth-generation Atlantan. Her GGG-grandfather, Thomas Mitchell, fought in the American Revolution, his son was in the War of 1812, her g-grandfather, Russell Mitchell, fought in the Civil War -- so, Margaret Mitchell was very aware of the history of her homeland and the people. Mitchell paid great attention to details of how life was during the time of Gone With The Wind, and fashion was one aspect of the details.

The video I chose, does show how corsets were worn and how they were tightened with the aid of another person. It is not meant to be an historical fact, rather it is an example of a fact.

- The s-bend corset really does not affect the posture that much; a great deal of its effect comes from padding.

MY REPLY: Some of the effect of a larger derriere did come from padding, however, most of the padding was the women's own rump which was forced further back and extra body fat pushed down to add to the size of the rump. The corset actually did affect the posture greatly. In the center front of the corset was a very rigid straight busk, which forced the upper part of the torso forward and caused the hips to protrude. Inez Gaches-Sarraute was a corsetier who had a degree in medicine. She was the one who encouraged the wearing of the S-bend corset because she thought it was less injurious to the health of the wearer. Yet, the benefit of causing less pressure on the abdomen, caused a negative effect on the posture, which was a sway-back shape, unnatural and distorted.

Again, Cassidy, I appreciate you taking the time to read and comment on my hub. You are more than welcome to comment on my reply. If you still disagree with me, that is your prerogative. I did heavy research and stand by my work.

Cassidy on February 07, 2013:

I'm actually a little bit depressed that this post is being called well-researched and "definitive". I'm sorry, because you seem like a truly nice person, but this is tremendously exaggerated and full of myths.

- Corsets are not "torturous contraptions" that cause great pain and suffering, let alone deformity.

- The main point of the corset was not just to narrow the waist, but to round it (making it appear smaller), and to support the bust and the weight of the clothing.

- Nobody was lacing down to 14", and I think you'll have a very, very tough time trying to find an extant adult's corset that size.

- Corsets were not short after about 1810, even though the waist was high

- Gone With the Wind is not an historical source, and contains a lot of the Victorian fetishization that was popular in the mid-20th century.

- The s-bend corset really does not affect the posture that much; a great deal of its effect comes from padding.

I'd be happy to have more of a conversation on this and share some of my sources with you if you'd like.

Phyllis Doyle Burns (author) from High desert of Nevada. on July 14, 2012:

Thank you daisydayz, for your visit and comment. I had great fun researching for this hub and learned a lot of things I never knew before. Being a fashion journalist must lead you to very interesting times in the history of fashion.

I have a friend in Cardiff and keep in touch with him often. It seems like a lovely place to live, full of ancient history and beauty. It is nice to meet you.

Chantele Cross-Jones from Cardiff on July 14, 2012:

Great hub, very informative! I am a fashion journalist most of the time, so these kind of hubs really interest me!

Phyllis Doyle Burns (author) from High desert of Nevada. on March 12, 2012:

Thanks adriatk for the visit and the comment.

adriatk from USA on March 12, 2012:

I think corsets are degrading to women's body image, much like today's desire to be extremely thin. It just goes to show that women have always sought to modify their bodies. They have been insecure about their natural shape for centuries.

Phyllis Doyle Burns (author) from High desert of Nevada. on February 22, 2012:

Well thank you so very much for the wonderful compliment, Colin. I am humbled by your comment. Thank you also for sharing on FB.

I will love to join your group on Music and Cinema. Thank you for the invite.

Walk in Peace and Harmony and warm wishes, good energy to you, too.

epigramman on February 22, 2012:

...hard to believe Phyllis in this day and age of the history of corsets but you have put together a definitive hub subject on a world class level and will be proudly promoted and posted on my Facebook page with a direct link back here - I have created a new FB group called LET'S JUST TALK MUSIC AND CINEMA - and in the first week we already have 78 members and having a lot of fun - I would be honored if you would like to join - just go to my FB page if you're interested - my name is Colin Stewart with the same profile photo and just click the group title for a link. lake erie time ontario canada 12:28am and sending you warm wishes and good energy

Phyllis Doyle Burns (author) from High desert of Nevada. on February 17, 2012:

plussize-lingerie, I am so glad you stopped by. I think the corsets of today are lovely and very flattering to a woman's figure -- and not torturous. Some of the ads I see have such pretty and very feminine corsets. I am tempted to get one for myself just for special times -- if that special time ever comes my way.

Thank you for stopping by and for your comments.

David Taylor from UK on February 17, 2012:

That's such an interesting history lesson. We sell them, but I've never thought to research their actual history.

Thankfully these days, I think they are more worn from choice than from such "enforced" fashion. Or at least, I hope so!

Phyllis Doyle Burns (author) from High desert of Nevada. on February 17, 2012:

I guess the best thing to do is just be happy with what makes one feel good. Thanks for the comments and return visits, rlaha.

rlaha from Spartanburg, SC on February 17, 2012:

Hi Phyllis. Yes, and also it makes you wonder what the "perfect body" in each era was. I was reading in some article once that in the 1800s it was the fashion to be fat. The fatter you were the more beautiful you were considered. Then in the 1900s it became the opposite where the skinnier you were with more leg showing, the more beautiful you were. It's confusing.

Phyllis Doyle Burns (author) from High desert of Nevada. on February 17, 2012:

Hi Dolores. Thanks for stopping by and for the votes - I appreciate that. Of course, it would be nice if you link this to your Victorian hub, I will do the same in this hub and link to yours. After I submitted this hub, I found yours on swimsuit history and was delighted to read it. Fashion history is a fascinating subject to research and write about.

Dolores Monet from East Coast, United States on February 17, 2012:

Hi, Phyllis - voted up! I love fashion history and hope you don't mind if I link this one to my Victorian hub. I can't imagine wearing those things, especially in summer.

Phyllis Doyle Burns (author) from High desert of Nevada. on February 16, 2012:

Thank you, Vinaya, for stopping by and sharing your thoughts. I have read about the women in China keeping their feet small. At one time a Chinese woman with normal size feet was considered very unattractive. The women who kept their feet in tiny shoes must have suffered great pain.

It is always good to have you stop by. I love your Valentine's Day hub, it is so lovely and timeless.

Vinaya Ghimire from Nepal on February 16, 2012:

From ancient time women are wearing very uncomfortable things to make them attractive. In china, women never change the size of their shoes they wore when they were children. This is to make their feet small which is considered attractive according to traditional Chinese society.

I have seen women wearing corsets in movies based in periods. They look attractive but the uncomfortableness shows clearly.

Thanks for sharing the history.

Phyllis Doyle Burns (author) from High desert of Nevada. on February 16, 2012:

Hi rlaha. I wonder though...over time what is considered attractive figures of women has changed drastically. If you look at women in paintings by the Old Masters, the figure is fuller and more voluptuous than today's accepted attractive figure. Then there were eras, like the 'Twiggy Era' when skinny, really skinny, was all the rage. Many women of the younger generation today think that actresses like Marilyn Monroe, Jane Mansfield, Mae West, were fat -- when actually in their own time, those actresses were considered to be gorgeous with beautiful figures. There is so much emphasis today on exercising vigorously to have the 'perfect' rock hard body.

rlaha from Spartanburg, SC on February 16, 2012:

Hi Phyllis. To answer your questions I think it would be that women would want to be thin or curvy, and because they strive to look that way, the men also think that it is "normal" for women to be skinny or curvy. Yes I think it would be a wonderful hub to write or read. If you write one I will be looking to read it. :).

Phyllis Doyle Burns (author) from High desert of Nevada. on February 16, 2012:

Hi Joyce. It is always good to have you stop by. I agree with you, it is fortunate we were not around back then. Good heavens, can you imagine wearing that kind of constricting clothing? Thank goodness we are women of freedom and independence.

Thank you so much for your comments and votes. I so appreciate that.

Phyllis Doyle Burns (author) from High desert of Nevada. on February 16, 2012:

StellaSee, yes it is quite funny that the Edwardian corset was meant to be "healthier" for the woman. How could they think that bending a woman's body in an unnatural form could ever be healthy -- or comfortable?

Thank you so much for the visit, reading, and your comment. I appreciate your "support" - HaHaHa.

Phyllis Doyle Burns (author) from High desert of Nevada. on February 16, 2012:

rlaha, you bring up a very interesting point. Women have always been obsessed with their body image. Is it society that dictates how women should look? Is it the way men want women to look? Or is it just that women have always wanted to be in the highest fashion mode? That would make a good hub to delve into.

Thanks for the visit and reading and thank you so much for the votes. I appreciate your interest and support.

Joyce Haragsim from Southern Nevada on February 16, 2012:

Thank goodness I was around then. Those poor must have deformed in some way. Great hub I enjoyed reading. Vote up and interesting, Joyce.

StellaSee from California on February 16, 2012:

Ahaha~ that's so funny how people thought the Edwardian Corset would be considered 'better for the woman's health.' Thanks for sharing this! I learned something new today.

rlaha from Spartanburg, SC on February 16, 2012:

This is interesting because it explains why women have always been obsessed with their body image. They strive to have curves or strive to be thin. Whatever the era, women always have a problem with their body image. I voted this hub up and interesting. Thank you for sharing this.

I have been blogging and writing online since 1996. I enjoy topics as varied as graceful aging, self-care, and vintage hats.

A Milliner for the Stars

In the 1950s, Mr. John was as famous for hats as Christian Dior was for haute couture. Mr. John hats were synonymous with elegance, style, and glamour. The man and his hats reached the apex of the fashion world. Nobody else even came close to him. Hollywood studios paid him design hats for such notables as Joan Crawford, Greta Garbo, and Vivien Leigh. Society matrons swooned over him and he was a major celebrity on his own.

In the 1950s, a Mr. John hat was de rigeur not just in Hollywood films, but also on fashion runways and in the watering holes frequented by high society in New York and Palm Beach. Mr. John's client list included such luminaries as the Duchess of Windsor, Joan Crawford, Rosalind Russell, Gloria Swanson, Gloria Vanderbilt, and Lauren Bacall. His hats were treasured possessions not just of the rich and famous, but also of upwardly mobile, fashion-forward women everywhere. At his peak, he employed 150 people and produced 16,000 hats a year under several different labels. In short, he was a household name and one of the most popular milliners who ever lived.

All But Forgotten in the 1970s

When hats went out of style in the 1970s, Mr. John's fame and clientele waned, as well. By the time of his death in 1993, he was virtually forgotten, though according to his obit in the New York Times, he continued to service a select few private clients until about a year before his death. He is famously quoted as saying that he didn't know what he would do if he got to heaven because he knew he could not improve upon the halo.

Personal Story and Building a Career

The man who designed hats for everyone from suburban matrons to the crowned heads of Europe, and whose hats from the late 1940s through the early 1960s simply bore the label "Mr. John," began life as John Pico Harberger in Germany in 1906. He immigrated to the United States in 1919 with his family and served an apprenticeship with his mother, Madame Laurel. She owned an upscale hat shop on New York's fashionable Upper East Side back in the days when a lady always wore a hat and gloves. Mr. John learned his craft well and worked with his mother for several years.

In 1929, he formed a partnership with Frederic Hirst, and under the label John-Frederic's they became vastly successful designing hats for Hollywood films to be worn by the era's biggest stars. The partnership dissolved in 1948 with Hirst retaining the rights to the John- Frederic label and John moving to New York and beginning to create hats on his own under the label "Mr. John."

Mr. John (both the man and the label) rode the post-war wave of prosperity through Dior's "new look" of the 1950s and into the 1960s with its fashion revolution and emphasis on mini-skirts and the Beatles. He managed to absorb Carnaby Street panache into his restrained elegant style with great success. As hats went out of fashion in the '70s, Mr. John retired into a private life that he had always kept very private. He enjoyed the patronage of a few old clients who had by that time become friends.

Mr. John Hats Make a Comeback

These days, hats are making a big comeback for both men and women, thanks to Gen Y enthusiasm for all things retro and vintage. Worn with a youthful panache and adventuresome pairings that the 1950s woman imprisoned in slip and panty girdle could never have envisioned, the hats of Mr. John have made their way from grannies closet and the local thrift shop to the wardrobes of a new generation. What could be better for Mr. John?

What used to be called a "cocktail hat" is now called a "fascinator" and has taken the fashion world by storm. Everything old is new again. Lucky modern girls can own a Mr. John for a lot less than their mothers and grandmothers would have paid. They are to be found at garage sales and consignment shops and online through e-Bay and Etsy. One doesn't have to look far.

Everything Old Is New Again

It's hard to believe that these photos are of hats that were created in the 1950s and '60s when life was more structured and formal and fashion, in imitation of life, adhered to rather rigid rules. (I'm talking about things like not wearing stripes with plaid; or white before Memorial Day or after Labor Day; or patent leather shoes in winter. Never let your bra strap show. Always wear a slip. Always tuck in your shirt. Etc.) The hats of Mr. John are obviously classic and timeless. They fit so well with today's more relaxed, bend-the-rules fashion looks. I just love their versatility.

And clearly, so does a whole new generation of women who are snatching up Mr. John models wherever they find them. Personally, I am all about re-using and re-purposing everything possible, and I am delighted to see Mr. John once again coming into his own.

Tips on Buying Vintage Mr. John

Looking for a Mr. John hat of your very own? Let me warn you that googling "Mr. John" will probably bring up lots of listings for a company that supplies portable toilets to large outdoor gatherings, You'll do better by searching for "vintage hats" or checking out Etsy and e-Bay. You might also try a wonderful e-shop dedicated to hats called The Vintage Hatbox.

I live in an area where there are lots of good consignment shops, and these are a good bet for Mr. John hats. Consignment shops these days don't get too many hats, but you could always leave a request with your favorite to let you know if a Mr. John model comes in. Yard sales, flea markets, and local auctions are also great places to poke around. You never know what you will find.

A word of warning—a genuine Mr. John will have one of his labels inside the brim. Don't take anybody's word; look for the label. Here's a website that shows all the labels under which he sold hats.Take a look before you go hat hunting. The label is a guarantee of the good design and impeccable quality which always characterized Mr. John.

More About Hats

• Vintage Pillbox Hats And the Women Who Made Them High Fashion
  The Pillbox hat was a fashion icon in post WWII America, Jackie Kennedy, Audrey Hepburn and others made it famous and women today still love it
• History of The Panama Hat
  Are you surprised to learn that Panama hats do not come from Panama? Genuine Panama hats come only from two specific towns in Ecuador and are hand woven as they have been since the time of the Incas

Comments

Laura Brown from Barrie, Ontario, Canada on November 08, 2012:

I love old hats. I would like to be a hat maker. I often find old hat making patterns at the thrift store.

Roberta Kyle (author) from Central New Jersey on June 21, 2012:

So glad you liked the hub wrenfrost56-- Actually, here in the States, Mr. John is making something of a comeback as hats make a comeback and his hats are being snapped up by the young and hip at flea markets, vintage clothing shops and online. I'm really glad to see that as he was so talented.

wrenfrost56 from U.K. on June 21, 2012:

Another Fascinating hub robie2, I had not heard of Mr John Before, it's a shame he got forgotten about especially as he was so influencial in fashion. Thanks for that. :)

Roberta Kyle (author) from Central New Jersey on May 08, 2012:

Oh thank you Audraleigh-- I love hats too-- especially ones with big floppy brims. Thanks for reading and voting-- you are just the best and a ray of sunshine, always:-)

iamaudraleigh on May 08, 2012:

I love to wear hats!!! This was a fun hub to read!!! I will check out the sites you wrote in this great hub! Voted it up for fun this morning!

Roberta Kyle (author) from Central New Jersey on March 03, 2012:

thanks alocsin and ar. cotton-- I can't imagine that either one of you is old enough to remember Mr. John in his heyday-- after all he was already making hats for Hollywood stars in the 1930s and he was pretty much done by the 1960s, but I am told he was quite a genius and I think his hats speak for themselves. I am soooooo glad hats are making a comeback. BTW, in a shameless plug for myself, I do a blog about hats on Eye on Life e-zine called " A Hat for All Seasons" drop by anytime:-)

Mikal Smith from Vancouver, B.C. on March 03, 2012:

I can't believe I've never heard of this designer. And I love hats. Thanks so much for this hub!

Aurelio Locsin from Orange County, CA on March 03, 2012:

Those are excellent hats. I'd never heard of him so thanks for pointing out his contributions -- glad he's made a comeback. Voting this Up and Interesting.

Roberta Kyle (author) from Central New Jersey on February 13, 2012:

Wow that's great-- once you buy one, you'll be hooked:-)

shea duane from new jersey on February 13, 2012:

I just found a vintage Mr. John hat for sale on ebay! I'm thinking seriously about buying it!

Roberta Kyle (author) from Central New Jersey on February 09, 2012:

elegant yes-- but don't forget the torture of the waist cincher and the " merry widow" not to mention all those girdles and garter belts-- there was a reason women burned their bras in the '60's :-) Thanks for stopping by and for reading and commenting ST. I must say I love Mr. John hats and I think the man himself must have been quite an interesting character.

Sherri from Southeastern Pennsylvania on February 09, 2012:

This is such a super Hub, Robie, and that video is just gorgeous. I was taken by how the male photographer was dressed in one of the Paris street scenes...dress shirt, tie, creased trousers. What an elegant time.

Dolores Monet from East Coast, United States on February 04, 2012:

Love those vintage hats - I try them all on but never wear a hat unless it's 20 degrees outside. Anyway, don't forget the straw hats - hot to be worn after Labor Day, or someone could punch a hole in the straw hat and it would be okay. (My father told me about that)

Roberta Kyle (author) from Central New Jersey on February 04, 2012:

Thanks Steph-- he must have been quite a character. Funny how quickly people get forgotten. He was so famous when he was alive and then poof! Just goes to show ya -- hope he's wearing his halo at a jaunty angle LOL

Stephanie Marshall from Bend, Oregon on February 03, 2012:

Gorgeous, fascinating hub! I have to admit I didn't know about Mr. John hats, but I feel inspired to shop for some fabulous vintage finds. Love his comment about not being able to improve on the halo when he goes to heaven. Priceless. Another great one, Robie!

Roberta Kyle (author) from Central New Jersey on February 03, 2012:

I am so impressed that you have an extensive collection of vintage hats-- I will be over the moon if it turns out you have one by Mr. John. You very well might-- he made a lot of hats in his day:-)

Jaye Denman from Deep South, USA on February 03, 2012:

Now I will feel compelled to go through my extensive collection of vintage hats to see if I have one with the label proclaiming, "Mr. John."

Roberta Kyle (author) from Central New Jersey on February 03, 2012:

I'm all for that LOL In fact, I'm all about less housework-- at least less housework for ME :-)

Keri Summers from West of England on February 03, 2012:

Yes, love it. There should be more hats in life, and less housework. Thanks for the follow!

Roberta Kyle (author) from Central New Jersey on February 03, 2012:

Thanks for stopping by, Keri. I'm glad you enjoyed the hub and got an interoduction to Mr. John-- isn't his stuff great?

Keri Summers from West of England on February 03, 2012:

I loved this hub. A real treat, and very informative. I think my favourite was the plush cloche.

Roberta Kyle (author) from Central New Jersey on February 03, 2012:

Ahhhhh--ok :-)

Joanna McKenna from Central Oklahoma on February 03, 2012:

Actually, I meant the resurgence of hat wearing in the UK that was taking place long before the future Duchess of Cambridge (officially) arrived on the scene. The millinery creations worn by female guests attending the nuptials of Prince Charles and Horse Face - whenever that was - were impressive. Jewelry can dress up an outfit, but not in the same way a pretty or striking hat can.

Roberta Kyle (author) from Central New Jersey on February 03, 2012:

I love hats too Shea and yes I do wear them as often as I can. Hate to admit it, but that is not MY yardsale find, but that of a fellow blogger who wrote a post about it... but isn't that hat great? Thanks for the kind words and for stopping by and reading and commenting.

shea duane from new jersey on February 02, 2012:

I love hats, and I love your yard sale find! What a great hub! Robie, you have such great ideas for hubs! Do you wear hats?

Roberta Kyle (author) from Central New Jersey on February 02, 2012:

Hi Jama-- Yes indeed. I assume you are referring to the fair Duchess of Cambridge aka Kate Middleton and her flair for fascinators. I think she is single-handedly reviving the hat biz worldwide LOL

Hi Amy-- yup I love that fedora too-- can't figure out if it was originally meant for men or women, but it is totally fabulous on either sex I think. Thanks for stopping by and having a read.

amy jane from Connecticut on February 02, 2012:

I love the re-purposed grey fedora!:)Looks like I need to shop the local consignment shops...Thanks for the fun read!

Joanna McKenna from Central Oklahoma on February 02, 2012:

Were Mr. John alive today and residing in London, he'd be up to his hatband in orders for new creations. Real style never goes out of style!

I enjoy giving advice to others on how to get unique hairstyles.

1. Marie Antoinette Had Some Royal Hair Flaws

While Marie Antoinette is famous for her amazing hair, she actually got a lot of criticism for her uneven hairline and high forehead, which her hairstylists regularly fought to conceal and lessen.

Why does Marie Antoinette smile at us from her paintings? Because her hair is full of secrets.

Seriously though, Marie Antoinette had dreadfully fascinating tresses. Here are ten fun facts about this doomed fashionista's epic, epic hair!

2. Marie Antoinette Was a Powder Fiend

During Marie Antoinette’s time in the French court, powdered hair was considered somewhat mandatory. Nobody showed up at court without it.

The powder applied to posh people's heads consisted of either potato or rice flower starch (or Cyprus powder, which is made from reindeer moss or another similar lichen). Some powders contained additional perfumes and colors. Powder was fixed to hairstyles with pomatum, a sort of scented oil.

3. Marie Antoinette Had a Diva Hairdresser

For most of her life, Marie Antoinette’s main hairdresser was a Parisian named Léonard. Léonard was such a big deal that he could only afford to leave his salon in Paris and dress the Queen’s hair once a week—on Sundays. All other days, the important role of royal hairdresser went to one of Leonard’s assistants, known as “le beau Julian.”

Léonard was, without a doubt, a total diva. What Madame de Genlis said of him sums this guy up perfectly: “Léonard came, he came, and he was king.”

4. Marie Antoinette and Léonard Pioneered the Pouf

Léonard didn’t get famous for sitting around and doing nothing. This impressive hairdresser is responsible for Marie Antoinette’s most famous hairstyle—the pouf.

The pouf was first flaunted in 1774, at the coronation of Louis XVI, and boy, did it ever make waves!

5. Hairstyles in Marie Antoinette’s Court Were Similar to Today’s Witty T-shirts

In addition to decorating their elaborate, powdered hairdos with ribbons, flowers, and precious jewels, fashionable and with-it women in Marie Antoinette’s court would embellish their hairstyles with various figurines and miniatures to comment on or commemorate certain life events or popular contemporary themes.

One might, for example, have an American Revolution-themed hairstyle with war motifs, or a hairstyle with a miniature baby or nurse to celebrate the birth of a new court celebrity. Some hairstyles even sported miniature ship models.

When you think about it, these witty hairstyles were very similar to today’s ironic t-shirts! They both found wry and fashionable ways to comment on the current craze or communicate messages like “baby on board.”

6. Marie Antoinette’s Hairdressers Had to Go on Damage Control

Due to a combination of stress, depression, and (probably) vigorous hairstyling, Marie Antoinette’s hair began to thin (and maybe fall out) in 1776.

So that the queen's hair may have a chance to start fresh, it was cut short a couple of times during her life (typically right before or after the birth of a child). During these periods, she had to rely on wigs (more than usual).

7. The Pouf Was Not Marie Antoinette’s Only Signature Style

Because Marie Antoinette had some hair thinning problems, her hairdresser Léonard had to try out a new look. What resulted was a short, feathery style, which, after the birth of her son in 1781, was nicknamed coiffure a l’enfant.

If only every new mother’s messy hairstyle could be fobbed off as a trendy fashion move!

8. Marie Antoinette Got Nervous, Too!

One of Marie Antoinette’s nervous habits was to run her fingers through her hair. Next time someone gives you a hard time for doing the same thing yourself, scoff at them and say, “If the queen of France did it, I can, too.”

9. Marie Antoinette Went Gray Early

People first began to notice gray hairs on Marie Antoinette’s head when she was in her early 30s. As her country’s political climate became even more tumultuous and the Queen’s life fell into upheaval, she ascribed her hair’s change in color to various stressful events.

10. Marie Antoinette’s Last Cut Was a Total Disaster

The final person to “style,” or rather, de-style Marie Antoinette’s hair was Charles Henri Sanson, a fourth-generation executioner. He cut off her hair using large professional shears. It didn’t look great.

There you have it!

I hope you find these fun tidbits of information to be as interesting as I do!

If you would like to read more about Marie Antoinette's hair (and amazing life), I recommend picking up Antonia Fraser's Marie Antoinette: The Journey. It is from this book that I learned the majority of the facts mentioned above.

I will leave you with one simple, humble request: PLEASE, BRING THE POUF BACK INTO FASHION!!!

Comments

Nigel Josepha Johanna von Habsburg-Lotharingen von Meerendonk on May 18, 2018:

The big forehead is a lie

Jessie Childs on February 19, 2015:

This made me believe that I must have always wanted to know about Marie Antoinette's hair, nice hub! :)

Sheila Brown from Southern Oklahoma on March 31, 2013:

From what I have heard, lice was one reason for the powder. Lice prefer to live in clean hair. The powder supposedly killed and kept the lice away. Yuk, makes my skin crawl to think about it! Too much maintenance for me. I am retired now, I have too much to do. I cut my hair short every spring now and gray is just going to have to be "my color". Cool video and hub! Up and interesting! :)

Daisy Mariposa from Orange County (Southern California) on March 30, 2013:

Simone,

What a terrific video and article!

Having majored in Fine Arts in college, I was familiar with many of the paintings of Marie Antoinette. I had no idea, however, about anything related to Marie Antoinette's hair.

Ruth McCollum from Lake Oswego, Oregon on September 24, 2012:

Loved this hub! I can only say i too went gray early,and I'm sure glad hair styles are so different now!

Chantele Cross-Jones from Cardiff on September 24, 2012:

What a fun hub, very different!! I didn't know most tof that so thanks for the little bit fo random knowledg!

michael ely from Scotland on August 16, 2012:

Good look. Just don't forget to duck going through doors!

Skarlet from California on July 13, 2012:

Nice job!

I hope that HUGE hair makes a comeback too.... :)

The paintings of her and the big hair are really something, its too bad her life turned out so tragic.

Simone Haruko Smith (author) from San Francisco on May 02, 2012:

Yeah, I hate that she met such an unfortunate end. Thanks for reading!

Ruth McCollum from Lake Oswego, Oregon on May 01, 2012:

Too bad they not only cut off her hair ,but her head as well. I enjoyed this hub,This being the second hub about her hair I've read tonight. I find this hub so well written and interesting!

emilybee on April 24, 2012:

Your videos are the greatest. My boyfriend has one long white hair. Sometimes I cut it so it's not so large and noticeable but it always comes back. My mom has learned to adore her grey hair. Me, well, I don't know if I'll be that secure about my greys when that day comes ;) Keep up the videos!!!

Mohan Kumar from UK on April 05, 2012:

There is a popular TV series called 'Horrible Histories' in the UK that deliver many historical facts in a hip and humorous way. Your hub and video would fit right in that canon- hilarious, informative, fun to watch and lots to learn. voted way up. You are a great narrator! I am going Powdering my Afro comeback.

Simone Haruko Smith (author) from San Francisco on March 14, 2012:

YES!!! WOMEN FOR BIG WIGS! I know it's only a matter of time before this look makes a comeback (however brief and limited in scope it may be). Here's hoping that comeback is soon!

Kitty Fields from Summerland on March 08, 2012:

You know I'm a HUGE fan of Marie Antoinette! And her hair was utterly fab. Great idea for a hub, and I DO so hope that we bring back HUGE HUGE hair one day soon. :) Voted up and awesome. WOMEN FOR BIG WIGS!

Simone Haruko Smith (author) from San Francisco on February 28, 2012:

Hahahahahaaa!! Oh, but if only I could get my hair to more permanently stay up in that frightful ensemble.

Wesman Todd Shaw from Kaufman, Texas on February 21, 2012:

OMG Pretty Lady, I just hope that hair of yours went back to where ....um....it was meant to go!!!

I also second the shea duane comment! No lame ideas on the Simone page!

Simone Haruko Smith (author) from San Francisco on January 30, 2012:

Thanks anglnwu!! LET'S DO IT!!!

Oh, it's an interesting book indeed, carozy! Though it is also pretty dense. So many people! So many events! So much protocol! I'm STILL working my way through it.

And goodness me, drbj... what I would GIVE to go back and see Versailles in the 17th and 18th Centuries! And I do see how a recording device might be superior to going in person... considering how bad it must have smelled...

Thanks so much, shea duane! I'm chuffed :D

And hahaa- grey is beautiful, FloraBreenRobison! Though I, too, am not so good on the high-maintenance hairstyles @_@

FloraBreenRobison on January 28, 2012:

This is too high maintenance for me. Homestreadbound's comment makes me afraid of them too. I also started to go grey early.

shea duane from new jersey on January 28, 2012:

You come up with the best ideas for hubs!

drbj and sherry from south Florida on January 28, 2012:

Too bad, Simone, that the miniature tape recorder didn't yet exist. Imagine the royal and otherwise secrets we all could have been privy to if Marie or others had concealed such an instrument within their respective poufs!

carozy from San Francisco on January 27, 2012:

Well. That was interesting! You're making me wanna read the book..

anglnwu on January 27, 2012:

Nice hairdo, it looks becoming on you. Let's bring big hairdo back--I'm for it since I'll be going to Singapore and my hair always puffs up with the high humidity. Rated up.

Simone Haruko Smith (author) from San Francisco on January 27, 2012:

I can certainly see how the phrase might have started with that practice, Glenn Stok! And alas, I did not go to HPHQ with that hairstyle, but I really DO want to rock it in the office sometime soon. Just have to figure out how to batten down the hatches, as it were.

Simone Haruko Smith (author) from San Francisco on January 27, 2012:

The book did not mention this, homesteadbound, though I have heard about lice being an issue during earlier times. And spiders get everywhere! Though considering all the weird powder used during this time... maybe they wouldn't WANT to be in all that stuff!

Thank you ever so, elayne001! Bangs would be a good solution, but alas, I'm dreadfully bad at styling them to keep them in place!

Oh, so sorry about the video loading troubles, tsmog T___T Though props on rebuilding your own PC!

And YAY!! I'm happy to provide some morning lulz, alipuckett :D

Glenn Stok from Long Island, NY on January 27, 2012:

I wonder if that's where the term came from... "bad hair day." Interesting review of Marie Antoinette's hair days.

I was wondering, did you walk around the office at HP with that hair to promote this Hub? It's a great way to get people's attention. Isn't it? Well done.

alipuckett on January 27, 2012:

HA! Your video just gave me my 'good morning!' laugh! Thanks! :)

Tim Mitchell from Escondido, CA on January 27, 2012:

This looks to be a very promising hub. Sadly, my PC stumbles terribly when playing videos of recent. Reading about these facts was entertaining, yet I so wanted to experience your rendition too. I look forward to your talent filled video articles in Feb when I rebuild my PC. Awesome and voted up, up and away , , ,

Elayne from Rocky Mountains on January 26, 2012:

You really do look a lot like Marie Antoinette and the hairdo becomes you! Maybe you can try a bit of bangs so the uneven hairline and large forehead won't be so noticeable. Just saying....

Cindy Murdoch from Texas on January 26, 2012:

I have always heard that spiders and other insects often lived in these hairstyles. Did the book mention this? I have always wondered, but had thought that it would be possible! Great job, as always!